We are Here for All Your Powersports Needs. Located in South Florida, Dade County Motorsports is a full-service parts and repair powerhouse. With over 20 years of Experience, Dade County Motorsports has built a solid team of knowledgeable staff (including industry certified service technicians), top-notch customer service, having a wide array of motorcycle parts and accessories at the very best prices, and unparalleled motorcycle diagnosis and repair. It has earned, and continues to earn, countless regognition from the online and local community. The reason for our success is simple: we treat every customer with the same commitment of respect, service, and support. Whether you've just bought your first motorcycle or you've been riding for years, we strive to offer the best service, advice, parts, repair, and prices.

There are no coupons

Articles

• There are no articles

There are no ratings

Buzzwords

motor sports Return to the top

Motorsport or motorsports is the group of sports which primarily involve the use of motorized vehicles, whether for racing or non-racing competition. MotoSport refers to motorcycle racing specifically and includes off-road racing such as motocross and MotoGP. Contents [hide] * 1 Motor racing * 2 Non-racing motorsport * 3 Olympics * 4 See also * 5 External links [edit] Motor racing Finnish speedway riders in the Speedway Extraliiga competition at Yyteri speedway venue An F1 powerboat rounding a buoy Motor racing is the subset of motorsport/motosport activities which involve competitors racing against each other. Forms of motor racing include:

Motorsport From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Motor sports) Jump to: navigation, search Jari-Matti Latvala driving the Ford Focus RS WRC 09 in 2010 Rally Finland. "Motor Sport" redirects here. For the magazine, see Motor Sport (magazine). Motorsport or Motosport (or motorsports) is the collection of sports which primarily involve the use of motorized vehicles. Motorsport includes all forms of motor racing as well as non-racing motorized sports. MotoSport references Motorcycle Racing specifically and includes off-road racing such as Motocross and MotoGP. Contents [show] * 1 Motor racing * 2 Non-racing motorsport * 3 Olympics * 4 See also * 5 External Links [edit] Motor racing Finnish speedwayriders in Speedway Extraliiga -competition in Yyteri speedway venue. An F1 powerboat rounding a buoy Motor racing is the subset of motorsport/motosport activities which involve competitors racing against each other. Forms of motor racing include: * auto racing * truck racing * motorcycle racing * air racing * boat racing * hydroplane racing * motorboat racing * snowmobile racing * hovercraft racing * lawn mower racing [edit] Non-racing motorsport In addition to motor racing, there are many other forms of motorsport which don't involve racing. Examples include motorcycle trials, freestyle motocross and tractor pulling. [edit] Olympics Motorsport was a demonstration event at the 1900 Summer Olympics. [edit] See also * International Motorsports Hall of Fame * Motorsports Hall of Fame of America * Long Beach Motorsports Walk of Fame

shop Return to the top

Click here to find out more! * jugum * forfend * affable * egregious shop - 6 dictionary results Hot Deals deep discounted liquidation prices Free shipping, $5 FlatRate on most www.Roadsideoutlet.com Peebles Peebles Coupons Savings from Peebles! www.ShopAtHome.com Toyota®Offers Toyota Care Get 2 Year/25,000 Mile Maintenance Plan with Toyota Care. Learn More. Sponsored Results www.SETbuyatoyota.com/ToyotaCare shop    /ʃɒp/ Show Spelled [shop] Show IPA noun, verb, shopped, shop·ping, interjection –noun 1. a retail store, esp. a small one. 2. a small store or department in a large store selling a specific or select type of goods: the ski shop at Smith's. 3. the workshop of a craftsperson or artisan. 4. the workshop of a person who works in a manual trade; place for doing specific, skilled manual work: a carpenter's shop. 5. any factory, office, or business: Our ad agency is a well-run shop. 6. Education . a. a course of instruction in a trade, as carpentry, printing, etc., consisting chiefly of training in the use of its tools and materials. b. a classroom in which such a course is given. 7. one's trade, profession, or business as a subject of conversation or preoccupation. –verb (used without object) 8. to visit shops and stores for purchasing or examining goods. 9. to seek or examine goods, property, etc., offered for sale: Retail merchants often stock their stores by shopping in new york. 10. to seek a bargain, investment, service, etc. (usually fol. by for ): I'm shopping for a safe investment that pays good interest. –verb (used with object) 11. to seek or examine goods, property, etc., offered for sale in or by: She's shopping the shoe stores this afternoon. 12. Chiefly British Informal . a. to put into prison; jail. b. to behave treacherously toward; inform on; betray. 13. Slang . to try to sell (merchandise or a project) in an attempt to obtain an order or contract. –interjection 14. (used in a store, shop, etc., in calling an employee to wait on a customer.) —Idioms 15. set up shop, to go into business; begin business operations: to set up shop as a taxidermist. 16. shut up shop, a. to close a business temporarily, as at the end of the day. b. to suspend business operations permanently: They couldn't make a go of it and had to shut up shop. 17. talk shop, to discuss one's trade, profession, or business: After dinner we all SAT around the table and talked shop. Use shop in a Sentence See images of shop Search shop on the Web Origin: 1250–1300; ME shoppe (n.), OE sceoppa booth; akin to scypen stall, shippon, G Schopf lean-to, Schuppen shed —Related forms in·ter·shop, adjective Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To shop Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : shop store, buy at, frequent, patronise, patronize View more related words » Get Your Business Online Online Marketing is The Best Way The Right Advertising For You Now www.QuArteDesigns.com The Vitamin Shoppe Official Site. Over 20,000 Products From Top Brands. Shop & Save Online Sponsored Results www.VitaminShoppe.com World English Dictionary shop (ʃɒp) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n 1. a place, esp a small building, for the retail sale of goods and services 2. an act or instance of shopping, esp household shopping: the weekly shop 3. a place for the performance of a specified type of work; workshop 4. informal all over the shop a. in disarray: his papers were all over the shop b. in every direction: I've searched for it all over the shop 5. shut up shop a. to close business at the end of the day or permanently b. to become defensive or inactive 6. talk shop to speak about one's work, esp when meeting socially, sometimes with the effect of excluding those not similarly employed — vb (often foll by for ) , shops , shopping , shopped 7. to visit a shop or shops in search of (goods) with the intention of buying them 8. slang chiefly ( Brit ) ( tr ) to inform on or betray, esp to the police [Old English sceoppa stall, booth; related to Old High German scopf shed, Middle Dutch schoppe stall] Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History shop c.1300, perhaps from O.E. scoppa "booth or shed for trade or work" (rare), related to scypen "cowshed," from P.Gmc. *skoppan "small additional structure" (cf. O.H.G. scopf "building without walls, porch," Ger. dial. Scopf "porch, cart-shed, barn," Ger. Schuppen "a shed"), from base *skupp-. But it's likely that the M.E. word was acquired from O.Fr. eschoppe "booth, stall," which is a Gmc. loan-word from the same root. Meaning "schoolroom equipped for teaching vocational arts" is from 1914, Amer.Eng. Sense of "matters pertaining to one's trade" is from 1814 (as in to talk shop , 1860). Shopping cart is recorded from 1956; shopping list first attested 1913; transf. and fig. use is from 1959. Click here to find out more! shop 1688, "to bring something to a shop, to expose for sale," from shop (n.). The meaning "to visit shops" is first attested 1764. Shop around is from 1922 Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Legal Dictionary Main Entry: shop Function: noun : a business establishment : a place of employment —see also CLOSED SHOP, OPEN SHOP, UNION SHOP Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Law, © 1996 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source Idioms & Phrases shop In addition to the idiom beginning with shop, also see bull in a china shop; close up (shop); set up (shop); shut up (shop); talk shop. The American Heritage® Dictionary of Idioms by Christine Ammer. Copyright © 1997. Published by Houghton Mifflin. Cite This Source Famous Quotations shop "The very dogs were all asleep, and the flies, drunk wit..." "Opening a shop is easy; what's hard is keeping it open." "This is the Night Mail crossing the Border, Bringi..." "After you eat always take a walk, and you'll never have..." "A good customer should not change his shop, nor a good ..." More Quotes Popular Subjects: FriendshipFunnyInspirationalLifeLoveProverbs Search another word or see shop on Thesaurus| Reference

rims Return to the top

The rim of a wheel is the outer circular design of the metal on which the inside edge of the tire is mounted on vehicles such as automobiles.[1] For example, on a bicycle wheel the rim is a large hoop attached to the outer ends of the spokes of the wheel that holds the tire and tube. Chariots introduced an iron rim around a wooden wheel in the 1st millennium BC. Contents [hide] * 1 Characteristics * 2 Production * 3 Meaning * 4 Railroad usage * 5 See also * 6 References [edit] Characteristics Scratched rim on one-piece wheel. Black residue remaining from where the tire was seated on the "safety profile" rim. * Diameter (effective): distance between the bead seats (for the tire), as measured in the plane of the rim and through the axis of the hub which is or will be attached, or which is integral with the rim. * Width (effective): separation distance between opposed rim flanges. * Type: Depends on the type of vehicle and tire. There are various rim profiles, as well as the number of rim components. Modern passenger vehicles and tubeless tires typically use one-piece rims with a “safety” rim profile. The safety feature helps keep the tire bead held to the rim under adverse conditions by having a pair of safety humps extending inwardly of the rim toward the other tire bead seat from an outer contoured surface of the rim.[2] Heavy vehicles and some trucks may have a removable multi-piece rim assembly consisting of a base that mounts to the wheel and axle. They then have either a side ring or a side and lock ring combination. These parts are removable from one side for tire mounting, while the opposite side attached to the base has a fixed flange. * Vehicle performance: Because the rim is where the tire resides on the wheel and the rim supports the tire shape, the dimensions of the rims are a factor in the handling characteristics of an automobile. For example: Overly wide rims in relation to the tire width for a particular car may result in more vibration and less comfortable ride because the sidewalls of the tire have insufficient curvature to flex properly over rough driving surfaces. Oversized rims will cause the tire to rub when turning. Overly narrow rims in relation to the tire width may cause poor handling as the tire may distort sideways under fast cornering. On motorcycles, a narrow rim will alter the tire profile, concentrating tire wear in a very small area during cornering, with a smaller contact patch during braking.[3] On bicycles, the optimum tire width is approximately twice the rim's internal width (e.g. a 35mm tire on a rim with an ETRTO 17mm internal width) or one-and-a-half times the rim's external width.[citation needed] Considerable variation outside this range is safe, but very wide tires on a narrow rim can overstress the rim and damage the tire sidewalls, whereas very narrow tires on a wide rim give a hard ride and can result in a high-pressure tire blowing off. [edit] Production Damage to the rim can cause vibration and cause the tire to fail to hold pressure A standard automotive steel wheel rim is made from a rectangular sheet metal. The metal plate is bent to produce a cylindrical sleeve with the two free edges of the sleeve welded together. At least one cylindrical flow spinning operation is carried out to obtain a given thickness profile of the sleeve — in particular comprising in the zone intended to constitute the outer seat an angle of inclination relative to the axial direction. The sleeve is then shaped to obtain the rims on each side with a radially inner cylindrical wall in the zone of the outer seat and with a radially outer frusto-conical[4] wall inclined at an angle corresponding to the standard inclination of the rim seats. The rim is then calibrated.[5] To support the cylindrical rim structure, a disc is made by stamping a metal plate. It has to have appropriate holes for the center hub and lugnuts. The radial outer surface of the wheel disk has a cylindrical geometry to fit inside the rim. The rim and wheel disk are assembled by fitting together under the outer seat of the rim and the assembly welded together.[5] One-piece rim and wheel assemblies (see image) may be obtained by casting or forging. [edit] Meaning Decorative wheels are often incorrectly referred to as "rims".[6] This use of the term "rim" is incorrect because it refers to only the outer portion of a wheel (where the tire is mounted), just as the rim of a coffee cup or a meteor crater does not refer to the entire object. Correct use of rim "inflation” on “increasingly large wheels” in a New York Times article.[7] [edit] Railroad usage In railroad usage the conical running surface of the wheels may be called a rim or a tyre. [edit] See also * Hubcap [edit] References 1. ^ "Rim" as defined by the Dictionary of Automobile Terms, undated, accessed on 2008-06-04. 2. ^ Wheel Rim European Patent 6 June 2007, retrieved on 2008-06-13. 3. ^ Dunlop Tire Tips, undated, retrieved on 2008-06-13. 4. ^ Definition of "frustoconical" in Wiktionary, retrieved on 2008-06-16. 5. ^ a b Vehicle wheel with assembly under the rim seat, US Patent 6935704, Issued on August 30, 2005, retrieved on 2008-06-13. 6. ^ An example of incorrect use of the term “rim” by referring it to mean the entire wheel. Retrieved on 2008-06-13. 7. ^ Walker, Rob. “Donk my ride” The New York Times, June 17, 2007, retrieved on 2008-06-13. Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rim_(wheel)" Categories: Automotive accessories | Auto parts | Automotive styling features | Wheels

headlights Return to the top

"Headlight" redirects here. For other uses, see Headlight (disambiguation). "High Beams" redirects here. For the urban legend also known by that name, see Killer in the backseat. A motor scooter's front with an impractical number and variety of headlamps, added for decorative purposes. A headlamp is a lamp, usually attached to the front of a vehicle such as a car, with the purpose of illuminating the road ahead during periods of low visibility, such as darkness or precipitation. Headlamp performance has steadily improved throughout the automobile age, spurred by the great disparity between daytime and nighttime traffic fatalities: the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration states that nearly half of all traffic-related fatalities occur in the dark, despite only 25% of traffic travelling during darkness.[1] While it is common for the term headlight to be used interchangeably in informal discussion, headlamp is the technically correct term for the device itself, while headlight properly refers to the beam of light produced and distributed by the device. A headlamp can also be mounted on a bicycle (with a battery or small electrical generator), and most other vehicles from airplanes to trains tend to have headlamps of their own. Additionally automotive night vision systems work to supplement headlamps. Contents [hide] * 1 History of automotive headlamps o 1.1 Mechanics o 1.2 Design and style + 1.2.1 Headlamp styling outside of the United States, pre-1983 + 1.2.2 Headlamp styling in the United States, 1940–1983 + 1.2.3 International headlamp styling, 1983–present + 1.2.4 Hidden headlamps * 2 Regulations and requirements o 2.1 Low beam o 2.2 High beam o 2.3 Compatibility with traffic directionality o 2.4 Use in daytime o 2.5 Construction, performance, and aim * 3 Optical systems o 3.1 Reflector lamps + 3.1.1 Lens optics + 3.1.2 Reflector optics # 3.1.2.1 Dual-beam reflector headlamps * 3.1.2.1.1 American system * 3.1.2.1.2 European system * 3.1.2.1.3 Recent developments o 3.2 Projector (polyellipsoidal) lamps * 4 Light sources o 4.1 Tungsten light sources o 4.2 Tungsten-halogen light sources + 4.2.1 Halogen infrared reflective light sources (HIR) o 4.3 HID (xenon) light sources + 4.3.1 History + 4.3.2 Burner and ballast operation + 4.3.3 Burner types + 4.3.4 Colour + 4.3.5 Advantages # 4.3.5.1 Increased safety # 4.3.5.2 Efficacy and output # 4.3.5.3 Longevity + 4.3.6 Disadvantages # 4.3.6.1 Glare # 4.3.6.2 Mercury content # 4.3.6.3 Lack of backward-compatibility # 4.3.6.4 Cost o 4.4 LED light sources * 5 Beam aim control o 5.1 Headlamp levelling systems o 5.2 Directional headlamps o 5.3 Advanced front-lighting system (AFS) o 5.4 Automatic beam switching o 5.5 Intelligent Light System o 5.6 Adaptive Highbeam * 6 Care * 7 Lens cleaners * 8 See also * 9 References [edit] History of automotive headlamps One of the first optic headlamp lenses, the Corning Conaphore. Selective yellow "Noviol" glass version shown. 1917 advertisement for the Corning Conaphore headlamp lens shown above. [edit] Mechanics The earliest headlamps were fueled by acetylene or oil and were introduced in the late 1880s. Acetylene lamps were popular because the flame was resistant to wind and rain. The first electric headlamps were introduced in 1898 on the Columbia Electric Car from the Electric Vehicle Company of Hartford, Connecticut, and were optional. Two factors limited the widespread use of electric headlamps: the short life of filaments in the harsh automotive environment, and the difficulty of producing dynamos small enough, yet powerful enough to produce sufficient current.[2] "Prest-O-Lite" acetylene lights were offered by a number of manufacturers as standard equipment for 1904, and Peerless made electrical headlamps standard in 1908. In 1912, Cadillac integrated their vehicle's Delco electrical ignition and lighting system, creating the modern vehicle electrical system. "Dipping" (low beam) headlamps were introduced in 1915 by the Guide Lamp Company, but the 1917 Cadillac system allowed the light to be dipped with a lever inside the car rather than requiring the driver to stop and get out. The 1924 Bilux bulb was the first modern unit, having the light for both low (dipped) and high (main) beams of a headlamp emitting from a single bulb. A similar design was introduced in 1925 by Guide Lamp called the "Duplo". In 1927, the foot-operated dimmer switch or dip switch was introduced and became standard for much of the century. The last vehicle with a foot-operated dimmer switch was the 1991 Ford F-Series.[citation needed] Fog lamps were new for 1938 Cadillacs,[citation needed] and their 1954 "Autronic Eye" system automated the selection of high and low beams. In 1935 Tatra T77a introduced light with cornering function - the front had three headlamps of which the central unit was linked to the steering, making it possible to turn this lamp with the steering wheel. The standardised 7-inch (178 mm) round sealed beam headlamp was introduced in 1940, and was soon required for all vehicles sold in the United States. Britain, Australia and other Commonwealth countries, as well as Japan, also made extensive use of 7-inch sealed beams. With some exceptions from Volvo and Saab, this headlamp size format was never widely accepted in continental Europe, leading to different front-end designs for each side of the Atlantic for decades. The first halogen headlamp for vehicle use was introduced in 1962 by a consortium of European bulb and headlamp makers. Halogen technology increases the efficacy (light output for given power consumption) of an incandescent light bulb and eliminates blackening of the bulb glass with usage. These were prohibited in the U.S., where non-halogen sealed beam lamps were required until 1978. Starting that year, sealed beams became available with halogen bulbs inside. These halogen sealed beams remain available, 25 years after replaceable-bulb headlamps returned to the U.S. in 1983. High-intensity discharge (HID) systems were introduced in 1991s BMW 7-series. European and Japanese markets began to prefer HID headlamps, with as much as 50% market share in those markets, but they found slow adoption in North America. 1996s Lincoln Mark VIII was an early American effort at HIDs, and was the only car with DC HIDs. [edit] Design and style Beyond the engineering, performance and regulatory-compliance aspects of headlamps, there is the consideration of the various ways they are designed and arranged on a motor vehicle. Headlamps were round for many years, because that is the easiest shape for parabolic reflector manufacture. [edit] Headlamp styling outside of the United States, pre-1983 European (top) and U.S. (bottom) headlamp configurations on a Citroën DS Rectangular headlamp with Selective yellow bulb on Citroën Ami 6 There was no requirement in Europe for headlamps of standardised size or shape. Automakers were free to design their lamps to whatever shapes and sizes they wished, as long as the lamps met the engineering and performance requirements contained in the applicable European safety standards. That design freedom permitted the development of rectangular headlamps, first used in 1961. Developed by Cibié for the Citroën Ami 6 and by Hella for the German Ford Taunus, they were prohibited in the United States where round lamps were required until 1975. Another early headlamp styling concept involved conventional round lamps faired into the car's bodywork with aerodynamic glass covers, such as those on the 1961 Jaguar E-Type. [edit] Headlamp styling in the United States, 1940–1983 In 1940, a consortium of state motor vehicle administrators standardised upon a system of two 7 in (178 mm) round sealed beam headlamps on all vehicles – the only system allowed for 17 years. A system of four round lamps, rather than two – one high/low and one high-beam 5+3⁄4 in (146 mm) sealed beam on each side – was introduced in 1957 by Cadillac, Chrysler and Nash on some of their car models in states that permitted the new system, and other American marques followed suit when all states permitted quad lamps in 1958. These lamps had some photometric advantages, particularly on high beam, but the primary advantage was the styling novelty permitted by the use of two small rather than one large lamp per side of the vehicle. The freedom was not absolute, however. Auto stylists such as Virgil Exner carried out design studies with the low beams in their conventional outboard location, and the high beams vertically stacked at the centreline of the car. No such designs reached volume production. Most cars had their headlights in pairs side by side on each side of the car. Some Oldsmobiles had a parking light in the middle of each pair. Stacked 5¾" sealed beams on a 1966 AMC Ambassador Also popular was an arrangement in which the two headlamps on each side were stacked, low beams above high beams. Nash used this arrangement in the 1957 model year. Pontiac used this design starting in the 1963 model year; American Motors, Ford, Cadillac and Chrysler followed two years later. Also in the 1965 model year, the Buick Riviera had concealable stacked headlamps. The Mercedes-Benz W100, W108, W111, and W112 models sold in America used this arrangement because their home-market composite lamps were illegal in the US. The British firm Alvis and the French firm Facel Vega also used this setup for some of their cars, as did Nissan in Japan. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Lincoln, Buick, and Chrysler arranged the headlamps diagonally by placing the low-beam lamps outboard and above the high-beam lamps. Certain British cars used a less extreme diagonal arrangement, with the inboard high-beam lamps placed only slightly lower than the outboard low-beam units. The 1965 Gordon-Keeble, Triumph Vitesse and Bentley S3 Continental used such an arrangement.[3] In 1968 when Federal auto equipment and safety regulations were initiated, the requirement for two large or four small round sealed beams was codified, thus freezing headlamp design for many years. At the same time, the new regulations prohibited any decorative or protective element in front of the headlamps whenever the headlamps are switched on. Glass-covered headlamps, used on e.g. the Jaguar E-Type, pre-1968 VW Beetle, 1965 Chrysler and Imperial models, Porsche 356, Citroën DS and Ferrari Daytona were no longer permitted and vehicles had to be imported with uncovered headlamps for the US market. This change meant that vehicles designed for good aerodynamic performance could not achieve it for the US market. When Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108 was amended in the early 1970s to permit rectangular headlamps, these were placed in horizontally-arrayed or vertically-stacked pairs. By 1979, the majority of new cars in the US market were equipped with rectangular lamps. Again, the US permitted only two standardised sizes of rectangular sealed-beam lamp: A system of two 200 by 142 mm (7.9 by 5.6 in) high/low beam units corresponding to the existing 7-inch round format, or a system of four 165 by 100 mm (6.5 by 3.9 in) units, two high/low and two high-beam. corresponding to the existing 5+3⁄4 in (146 mm) round format. [edit] International headlamp styling, 1983–present In 1983, granting a 1981 petition from Ford Motor Company, the 44-year-old US headlamp regulations were amended to allow replaceable-bulb, nonstandard-shape, architectural headlamps with aerodynamic lenses that could for the first time be plastic. This allowed the first U.S.-market car since 1939 with replaceable bulb headlamps – the 1984 Lincoln Mark VII. These composite headlamps were sometimes referred to as "Euro" headlamps, since aerodynamic headlamps were common in Europe. Though conceptually similar to European headlamps with nonstandardised shape and replaceable-bulb construction, these headlamps conform to the SAE headlamp standards of US Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108, and not the internationalised European safety standards used outside North America. Nevertheless, this change to US regulations largely united headlamp styling within and outside the North American market. In the late 1990s, round headlamps returned to popularity on new cars. These are generally not the discrete self-contained round lamps as found on older cars (certain Jaguars excepted), but rather involve circular or oval optical elements within an architecturally-shaped housing assembly. [edit] Hidden headlamps Main article: Hidden headlamps Pop up headlamps on a Mazda 323F Hidden headlamps were introduced in 1936, on the Cord 810. They were mounted in the front fenders, which were smooth until the lights were cranked out, each with its own small dash-mounted crank. They aided aerodynamics when the headlamps were not in use, and were among the Cord's signature design features. Many notable cars used this feature, but no current volume-produced car models use hidden headlamps, because they present difficulties in complying with pedestrian-protection provisions recently added to international auto safety regulations, and because the mechanisms are costly and heavy. Hidden headlamps require one or more vacuum-operated servos and reservoirs, with associated plumbing and linkage, or electric motors, geartrains and linkages to raise the lamps to an exact position to assure correct aiming despite ice, snow and age. Some early hidden headlamps, such as those on the Saab Sonett III, used a lever-operated mechanical linkage to raise the headlamps into position. Current market demands place a premium on vehicles' aerodynamic performance with lamps off and on, further reducing the attractiveness of pop-up headlamps. In addition, recent ECE regulations contain standards regarding protuberances on car bodies to minimise injury to pedestrians struck by cars. Some hidden headlamps themselves do not move, but rather are covered when not in use by panels designed to blend in with the car's styling. When the lamps are switched on, the covers are swung out of the way, usually downward or upward, for example on the 1992 Jaguar XJ220. The door mechanism may be actuated by vacuum pots, as on some Ford vehicles of the late 1960s through early 1980s such as the 1967-1969 Mercury Cougar, or by an electric motor as on various Chrysler products of the middle 1960s through late 1970s such as the 1966-1967 Dodge Charger. [edit] Regulations and requirements Modern headlamps are electrically operated, positioned in pairs, one or two on each side of the front of a vehicle. A headlamp system is required to produce a low and a high beam, which may be achieved either by an individual lamp for each function or by a single multifunction lamp. High beams (called "main beams" or "full beams" or "driving beams" in some countries) cast most of their light straight ahead, maximizing seeing distance, but producing too much glare for safe use when other vehicles are present on the road. Because there is no special control of upward light, high beams also cause backdazzle from fog, rain and snow due to the retroreflection of the water droplets. Low beams (called "dipped beams" in some countries) have stricter control of upward light, and direct most of their light downward and either rightward (in right-traffic countries) or leftward (in left-traffic countries), to provide safe forward visibility without excessive glare or backdazzle. ECE dipped/low beam Asymmetrical low beam illumination of road surface – right-traffic beam shown [edit] Low beam Low beam (dipped beam, passing beam, meeting beam) headlamps provide a distribution of light designed to provide adequate forward and lateral illumination with limits on light directed towards the eyes of other road users, to control glare. This beam is intended for use whenever other vehicles are present ahead. The international ECE Regulations for filament headlamps[4] and for high-intensity discharge headlamps[5] specify a beam with a sharp, asymmetric cutoff preventing significant amounts of light from being cast into the eyes of drivers of preceding or oncoming cars. Control of glare is less strict in the North American SAE beam standard contained in FMVSS / CMVSS 108.[6] [edit] High beam ECE high/main beam Symmetrical high beam illumination of road surface High beam (main beam, driving beam, full beam) headlamps provide a bright, centre-weighted distribution of light with no particular control of light directed towards other road users' eyes. As such, they are only suitable for use when alone on the road, as the glare they produce will dazzle other drivers. International ECE Regulations permit higher-intensity high-beam headlamps than are allowed under North American regulations.[7] [edit] Compatibility with traffic directionality Most low-beam headlamps are specifically designed for use on only one side of the road. Headlamps for use in left-traffic countries have low-beam headlamps that "dip to the left"; the light is distributed with a downward/leftward bias to show the driver the road and signs ahead without blinding oncoming traffic. Headlamps for right-traffic countries have low beams that "dip to the right", with most of their light directed downward/rightward. Within Europe, when driving a vehicle with RH-traffic headlamps in a LH-traffic country or vice versa for a limited time (as for example on vacation or in transit), it is a legal requirement to adjust the headlamps temporarily so that the wrong-side hot spot of the beam does not dazzle oncoming drivers. This may be achieved by adhering blackout strips or plastic prismatic lenses to a designated part of the lens. Many tungsten (pre-halogen) European-code headlamps made in France by Cibié, Marchal, and Ducellier could be adjusted to produce either a left- or a right-traffic low beam by means of a two-position bulb holder. More recently, some projector-type headlamps can be made to produce a proper left- or right-traffic beam by shifting a lever or other movable element in or on the lamp assembly. Because wrong-side-of-road headlamps blind oncoming drivers and do not adequately light the driver's way, and blackout strips and adhesive prismatic lenses reduce the safety performance of the headlamps, most countries require all vehicles registered or used on a permanent or semipermanent basis within the country to be equipped with headlamps designed for the correct traffic-handedness. North American vehicle owners sometimes privately import and install Japanese-market (JDM) headlamps on their car in the mistaken belief that the beam performance will be better, when in fact such misapplication is quite hazardous and illegal.[8] [edit] Use in daytime Main article: Daytime running lamp Some countries require automobiles to be equipped with automatic daytime running lamps (DRL), which are intended to increase the conspicuity of vehicles in motion during the daytime. DRL may consist of the manual or automatic illumination of the low beams at full or reduced intensity, or the high beams at reduced intensity, or may not involve the headlamps at all. Countries requiring DRL include Albania, Argentina,[9] Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Iceland, Israel, Kosovo, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Uruguay, and Sweden. [edit] Construction, performance, and aim There are two different beam pattern and headlamp construction standards in use in the world: The ECE standard, which is allowed or required in virtually all industrialised countries except the United States, and the SAE standard that is mandatory only in the US. Japan formerly had bespoke lighting regulations similar to the US standards, but for the left side of the road. However, Japan now adheres to the ECE standard. The differences between the SAE and ECE headlamp standards are primarily in the amount of glare permitted toward other drivers on low beam (SAE permits much more glare), the minimum amount of light required to be thrown straight down the road (SAE requires more), and the specific locations within the beam at which minimum and maximum light levels are specified. ECE low beams are characterised by a distinct horizontal "cutoff" line at the top of the beam. Below the line is bright, and above is dark. On the side of the beam facing away from oncoming traffic (right in right-traffic countries, left in left-traffic countries), this cutoff sweeps or steps upward to direct light to road signs and pedestrians. SAE low beams may or may not have a cutoff, and if a cutoff is present, it may be of two different general types: VOL, which is conceptually similar to the ECE beam in that the cutoff is located at the top of the left side of the beam and aimed slightly below horizontal, or VOR, which has the cutoff at the top of the right side of the beam and aimed at the horizon.[10] Proponents of each headlamp system decry the other as inadequate and unsafe: U.S. proponents of the SAE system claim that the ECE low beam cutoff gives short seeing distances and inadequate illumination for overhead road signs, while international proponents of the ECE system claim that the SAE system produces too much glare.[11] Comparative studies have repeatedly shown that there is little or no overall safety benefit to either SAE or ECE beams; the two systems' acceptance and rejection by various countries is based primarily on inertial and philosophical grounds.[10],[12] In North America, the design, performance and installation of all motor vehicle lighting devices are regulated by Federal and Canada Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108, which incorporates SAE technical standards. Elsewhere in the world, ECE internationalised regulations are in force either by reference or by incorporation in individual countries' vehicular codes. US laws required sealed beam headlamps on all vehicles between 1940 and 1983, and other countries such as Japan, United Kingdom and Australia also made extensive use of sealed beams. In most other countries, and in the US since 1984, replaceable-bulb headlamps predominate. Headlamps on new vehicles must produce white light, according to both ECE and SAE standards. Previous ECE regulations also permitted selective yellow light, which from 1936 until 1993 was required on all vehicles registered in France. Yellow headlamps are no longer required anywhere, but remain permitted in France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Japan, New Zealand, and some other countries. Headlamps must be kept in proper alignment (or "aim"). Regulations for aim vary from country to country and from beam specification to beam specification. US SAE headlamps are aimed without regard to headlamp mounting height. This gives vehicles with high-mounted headlamps a seeing distance advantage, at the cost of increased glare to drivers in lower vehicles. ECE headlamps' aim angle is linked to headlamp mounting height. This gives all vehicles roughly equal seeing distance and all drivers roughly equal glare.[13] [edit] Optical systems [edit] Reflector lamps [edit] Lens optics Lens optics, side view. Light is dispersed vertically (shown) and laterally (not shown). A 7 in. round sealed-beam headlamp with lens optics on a Jaguar E-type. The flutes and prisms spread and distribute the light collected by the reflector. A light source (filament or arc) is placed at or near the focus of a reflector, which may be parabolic or of non-parabolic complex shape. Fresnel and prism optics moulded into the headlamp lens then shift parts of the light laterally and vertically to provide the required light distribution pattern. The lens may use both refraction and TIR to achieve the desired results. Most sealed-beam headlamps have lens optics.[14] [edit] Reflector optics Reflector optics, side view A reflector-optic headlamp on a Jeep Liberty. The clear front cover lens serves only a protective function. Starting in the 1980s, headlamp reflectors began to evolve beyond the simple stamped steel parabola. The 1983 Austin Maestro was the first vehicle equipped with Lucas-Carello's homofocal reflectors, which comprised parabolic sections of different focal length to improve the efficiency of light collection and distribution.[15] CAD technology allowed the development of reflector headlamps with nonparabolic, complex-shape reflectors. First commercialised by Valeo under their Cibié brand, these headlamps would revolutionise automobile design.[16] The 1987 U.S.-market Dodge Monaco/Eagle Premier twins and European Citroën XM were the first cars with complex-reflector headlamps[17] with faceted optic lenses. General Motors' Guide Lamp division in America had experimented with clear-lens complex-reflector lamps in the early 1970s and achieved promising results,[18] but the U.S.-market 1990 Honda Accord was first with clear-lens multi-reflector headlamps; these were developed by Stanley in Japan.[19] The optics to distribute the light in the desired pattern are designed into the reflector itself, rather than into the lens. Depending on the development tools and techniques in use, the reflector may be engineered from the start as a bespoke shape, or it may start as a parabola standing in for the size and shape of the completed package. In the latter case, the entire surface area is modified so as to produce individual segments of specifically calculated, complex contours. The shape of each segment is designed such that their cumulative effect produces the required light distribution pattern.[14] Modern reflectors are commonly made of compression-moulded or injection molded plastic, though glass and metal optic reflectors also exist. The reflective surface is vapour deposited aluminum with a clear overcoating to prevent the extremely thin aluminum from oxidizing. Extremely tight tolerances must be maintained in the design and production of complex-reflector headlamps. [edit] Dual-beam reflector headlamps Night driving is difficult and dangerous due to the blinding glare of headlights from oncoming traffic. Headlamps that satisfactorily illuminate the road ahead without causing glare have long been sought. The first solutions involved resistance-type dimming circuits, which decreased the intensity of the headlamps. This yielded to tilting reflectors, and later to dual-filament bulbs with a high and a low beam. In a two-filament headlamp, there can only be one filament exactly at the focal point of the reflector. There are two primary means of producing two different beams from a two-filament bulb in a single reflector. [edit] American system One filament is located at the focal point of the reflector. The other filament is shifted axially and radially away from the focal point. In most 2-filament sealed beams and in 2-filament replaceable bulbs of type 9004, 9007, and H13, the high-beam filament is at the focal point and the low-beam filament is off focus. For use in right-traffic countries, the low-beam filament is positioned slightly upward, forward and leftward of the focal point, so that when it is energised, the beam is widened and shifted slightly downward and rightward of the headlamp axis. Transverse-filament bulbs such as the 9004 can only be used with the filaments horizontal, but axial-filament bulbs can be rotated or "clocked" by the headlamp designer to optimise the beam pattern or to effect the traffic-handedness of the low beam. The latter is accomplished by clocking the low-beam filament in an upward-forward-leftward position to produce a right-traffic low beam, or in an upward-forward-rightward position to produce a left-traffic low beam. The opposite tactic has also been employed in certain 2-filament sealed beams. Placing the low beam filament at the focal point to maximise light collection by the reflector, and positioning the high beam filament slightly rearward-rightward-downward of the focal point. The relative directional shift between the two beams is the same with either technique – in a right-traffic country, the low beam is slightly downward-rightward and the high beam is slightly upward-leftward, relative to one another – but the lens optics must be matched to the filament placements selected. [edit] European system The traditional European method of achieving low and high beam from a single bulb involves two filaments along the axis of the reflector. The high beam filament is on the focal point, while the low beam filament is approximately 1 cm forward of the focal point and 3 mm above the axis. Below the low beam filament is a cup-shaped shield (called a "Graves Shield") spanning an arc of 165°. When the low beam filament is illuminated, this shield casts a shadow on the corresponding lower area of the reflector, blocking downward light rays that would otherwise strike the reflector and be cast above the horizon. The bulb is rotated (or "clocked") within the headlamp to position the Graves Shield so as to allow light to strike a 15° wedge of the lower half of the reflector. This is used to create the upsweep or upstep characteristic of ECE low beam light distributions. The bulb's rotative position within the reflector depends on the type of beam pattern to be produced and the traffic directionality of the market for which the headlamp is intended. This system was first used with the tungsten incandescent Bilux/Duplo R2 bulb of 1954, and later with the halogen H4 bulb of 1971. In 1992, U.S. regulations were amended to permit the use of H4 bulbs redesignated HB2 and 9003, and with slightly different production tolerances stipulated. These are physically and electrically interchangeable with H4 bulbs.[20] Similar optical techniques are used, but with different reflector and/or lens optics to create a US beam pattern rather than a European one. Each system has its advantages and disadvantages. The American system historically permitted a greater overall amount of light within the low beam, since the entire reflector and lens area is used, but at the same time, the American system has traditionally offered much less control over upward light that causes glare, and for that reason has been largely rejected outside the US. In addition, the American system makes it difficult to create markedly different low and high beam light distributions. The high beam is usually a rough copy of the low beam, shifted slightly upward and leftward. The European system traditionally produced low beams containing less overall light, because only 60% of the reflector's surface area is used to create the low beam. However, low beam focus and glare control are easier to achieve. In addition, the lower 40% of the reflector and lens are reserved for high beam formation, which facilitates the optimisation of both low and high beams. [edit] Recent developments Complex-reflector technology in combination with new bulb designs such as H13 is enabling the creation of European-type low and high beam patterns without the use of a Graves Shield, while the 1992 US approval of the H4 bulb has made traditionally European 60% / 40% optical area divisions for low and high beam common in the US. Therefore, the difference in active optical area and overall beam light content no longer necessarily exists between US and ECE beams. Dual-beam HID headlamps employing reflector technology have been made using adaptations of both techniques. [edit] Projector (polyellipsoidal) lamps Projector optics, side view Projector headlamps on an Acura RL In this system a filament is located at one focus of an ellipsoidal reflector and has a condenser lens at the front of the lamp. A shade is located at the image plane, between the reflector and lens, and the projection of the top edge of this shade provides the low-beam cutoff. The shape of the shade edge, and its exact position in the optical system, determines the shape and sharpness of the cutoff.[14] The shade may have a solenoid actuated pivot to provide both low and high beam – the shade is removed from the light path to create high beam, and placed in the light path to create low beam, and such optics are known as BiXenon or BiHalogen projectors, depending on the light source used. If there is no such arrangement, the cutoff shade is fixed in the light path, in which case separate high-beam lamps are required. The condenser lens may have slight fresnel rings or other surface treatments to reduce cutoff sharpness. Recent condenser lenses incorporate optical features specifically designed to direct some light upward towards the locations of retroreflective overhead road signs. Hella introduced ellipsoidal optics for acetylene headlamps in 1911, but following the electrification of vehicle lighting, this optical technique wasn't used for many decades. The first modern polyellipsoidal (projector) automotive lamp was the Super-Lite, an auxiliary headlamp produced in a joint venture between Chrysler Corporation and Sylvania and optionally installed in 1969 and 1970 full-size Dodge automobiles. It used an 85 watt transverse-filament tungsten-halogen bulb and was intended as a mid-beam, to extend the reach of the low beams during turnpike travel when low beams alone were inadequate but high beams would produce excessive glare.[21] Projector main headlamps first appeared in 1981 on the Audi Quartz, the Quattro-based concept car designed by Pininfarina for Geneva Auto Salon.[citation needed] Developed more or less simultaneously in Germany by Hella and Bosch and in France by Cibié, the projector low beam permitted accurate beam focus and a much smaller-diameter optical package, though a much deeper one, for any given beam output. The version of the 1986 BMW 7 Series sold outside North America was the first volume-production auto to use polyellipsoidal low beam headlamps. [edit] Light sources [edit] Tungsten light sources The first electric headlamp light source was the tungsten filament, operating in a vacuum or inert-gas atmosphere inside the headlamp bulb or sealed beam. Compared to newer-technology light sources, tungsten filaments give off small amounts of light relative to the power they consume. Also, during normal operation of such lamps, tungsten boils off the surface of the filament and condenses on the bulb glass, blackening it. This reduces the light output of the filament and blocks some of the light that would pass through an unblackened bulb glass, though blackening was less of a problem in sealed beam units; their large interior surface area minimised the thickness of the tungsten accumulation. For these reasons, plain tungsten filaments are all but obsolete in automotive headlamp service. [edit] Tungsten-halogen light sources Halogen technology (also "quartz-halogen", "quartz-iodine", "iodine", "iode") makes tungsten filaments more efficacious producers of light – more lumens out per watt in – and European regulators and manufacturers chose to use this extra efficacy to provide drivers with more light than was available from non-halogen filaments at the same power consumption. By contrast, most U.S. low-beam halogens were lower-wattage versions of their non-halogen counterparts, producing the minimum legal amounts of light—in some cases less than the non-halogen predecessors—but with less power.[12] A slight theoretical fuel economy benefit and reduced vehicle construction cost through reduced wire and switch ratings were the claimed benefits. There was an improvement in seeing distance with U.S. halogen high beams, which were permitted for the first time to produce 150,000 candela (cd) per vehicle, double the nonhalogen limit of 75,000 cd but still well shy of the international European limit of 225,000 cd. After replaceable halogen bulbs were permitted in U.S. headlamps in 1983, development of U.S. bulbs continued to favour long bulb life and low power consumption, while European designs continued to prioritise optical precision and maximum output.[12] The first halogen bulb for vehicle use, the H1, was introduced in 1962 by a consortium of European bulb and headlamp makers. This bulb has a single axial filament that consumes 55 watts at 12.0 volts, and produces 1550 lumens ±15% when operated at 13.2 V. H2 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1820 lm @ 13.2 V) followed in 1964, and the transverse-filament H3 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1450 lm ±15%) in 1966. H1 still sees wide use in low beams, high beams and auxiliary foglamp and driving lamps, as does H3. The H2 does not see wide use any more because it requires an intricate bulb holder interface to the lamp, has a short life and is difficult to handle. For those reasons, H2 was withdrawn from ECE Regulation 37 for use in new lamp designs (though H2 bulbs are still manufactured for replacement purposes in existing lamps). The use of H1 and H3 bulbs was legalised in the United States in 1997. More recent single-filament bulb designs include the H7 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1500 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), H8 (35 W @ 12.0 V, 800 lm ±15% @ 13.2 V), H9 (65 W @ 12.0 V, 2100 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), and H11 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1350 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V). 24-volt versions of many bulb types are available for use in trucks, buses, and other commercial and military vehicles. The first dual-filament halogen bulb (to produce a low and a high beam with only one bulb), the H4, was released in 1971. The U.S. prohibited halogen headlamps until 1978, when halogen sealed beams were released. To this day, the H4 is still not legal for automotive use in the United States. Instead, the Americans created their own very similar standard (HB2/9003). The primary differences are that the HB2 sets more strict requirements on filament positioning, and that the HB2 are required to meet the lower maximum output standards set forth by the United States government. The first U.S. halogen headlamp bulb, introduced in 1983, was the 9004/HB1. It is a 12.8-volt, transverse dual-filament design that produces 700 lumens on low beam and 1200 lumens on high beam. The 9004 is rated for 65 watts (high beam) and 45 watts (low beam) at 12.8 volts. Other U.S. approved halogen bulbs include the 9005/HB3 (65 W, 12.8 V), 9006/HB4 (55 W, 12.8 V), and 9007/HB5 (65/55 watts, 12.8 V). [edit] Halogen infrared reflective light sources (HIR) A further development of the tungsten-halogen bulb has a dichroic coating that passes visible light and reflects infrared radiation. The glass in such a bulb is spherical, rather than tubular. The reflected infrared radiation strikes the filament located at the centre of the sphere, heating the filament to a degree greater than occurs by passing an electric current through the filament. The filament thus superheated emits more light, without an increase in power consumption or a decrease in lifespan. [edit] HID (xenon) light sources Xenon projector low beam headlamp illuminated on a Lincoln MKS. HID stands for high-intensity discharge, a term referring to the electric arc that produces the light. The high intensity of the arc comes from metallic salts that are vapourised within the arc chamber. These lamps are formally known as gas-discharge burners, and produce more light for a given level of power consumption than ordinary tungsten and tungsten-halogen bulbs. Because of the increased amounts of light available from HID burners relative to halogen bulbs, HID headlamps producing a given beam pattern can be made smaller than halogen headlamps producing a comparable beam pattern. Alternatively, the larger size can be retained, in which case the xenon headlamp can produce a more robust beam pattern. Automotive HID lamps are commonly called "xenon headlamps", though they are actually metal halide lamps that contain xenon gas. The xenon gas allows the lamps to produce minimally adequate light immediately upon powerup, and accelerates the lamps' run-up time. If argon were used instead, as is commonly done in street lights and other stationary metal halide lamp applications, it would take several minutes for the lamps to reach their full output. The light from HID headlamps exhibits a distinct bluish tint when compared with tungsten-filament headlamps.[22] [edit] History Xenon headlamps were introduced as an option on the BMW 7-series in 1991 for Europe, and in 1993 for US models. This first system used an unshielded, non-replaceable burner designated D1 – a designation that would be recycled years later for a wholly different type of burner. The AC ballast was about the size of a building brick. The first American-made effort at HID headlamps was on the 1996-98 Lincoln Mark VIII, which used reflector headlamps with an unmasked, integral-ignitor burner made by Sylvania and designated Type 9500. This was the only system to operate on DC; reliability proved inferior to the AC systems. The Type 9500 system was not used on any other models, and was discontinued after Osram's takeover of Sylvania. All HID headlamps worldwide presently use the standardised AC-operated bulbs and ballasts. [edit] Burner and ballast operation HID headlamp bulbs do not run on low-voltage DC current, so they require a ballast with either an internal or external ignitor. The ignitor is integrated into the bulb in D1 and D3 systems, and is either a separate unit or part of the ballast in D2 and D4 systems. The ballast controls the current to the bulb. The ignition and ballast operation proceeds in three stages: 1. Ignition: a high voltage pulse is used to produce a spark – in a manner similar to a spark plug – which ionises the Xenon gas, creating a conducting tunnel between the tungsten electrodes. Electrical resistance is reduced within the tunnel, and current flows between the electrodes. 2. Initial phase: the bulb is driven with controlled overload. Because the arc is operated at high power, the temperature in the capsule rises quickly. The metallic salts vaporise, and the arc is intensified and made spectrally more complete. The resistance between the electrodes also falls; the electronic ballast control gear registers this and automatically switches to continuous operation. 3. Continuous operation: all metal salts are in the vapor phase, the arc has attained its stable shape, and the luminous efficacy has attained its nominal value. The ballast now supplies stable electrical power so the arc will not flicker. Stable operating voltage is 85 volts AC in D1 and D2 systems, 42 volts AC in D3 and D4 systems. The frequency of the square-wave alternating current is typically 400 hertz or higher. [edit] Burner types HID headlamp burners produce between 2,800 and 3,500 lumens from between 35 and 38 watts of electrical power, while halogen filament headlamp bulbs produce between 700 and 2,100 lumens from between 40 and 72 watts at 12.8 V.[23][24][25] Current-production burner categories are D1S, D1R, D2S, D2R, D3S, D3R, D4S, and D4R. The D stands for discharge, and the number is the type designator. The final letter describes the outer shield. The arc within an HID headlamp bulb generates considerable short-wave ultraviolet (UV) light, but none of it escapes the bulb, for a UV-absorbing hard glass shield is incorporated around the bulb's arc tube. This is important to prevent degradation of UV-sensitive components and materials in headlamps, such as polycarbonate lenses and reflector hardcoats. "S" burners – D1S, D2S, D3S, and D4S – have a plain glass shield and are primarily used in projector-type optics. "R" burners – D1R, D2R, D3R, and D4R – are designed for use in reflector-type headlamp optics. They have an opaque mask covering specific portions of the shield, which facilitates the optical creation of the light/dark boundary (cutoff) near the top of a low-beam light distribution. Automotive HID burners do emit considerable near-UV light, despite the shield. [edit] Colour The correlated colour temperature of HID headlamp bulbs, at between 4100K and 4400K, is often described in marketing literature as being closer to the 5800K of sunlight compared with tungsten-halogen bulbs at 3000K to 3550K. Nevertheless, HID headlamps' light output is not similar to daylight. The spectral power distribution (SPD) of an automotive HID headlamp is discontinuous, while the SPD of a filament lamp, like that of the sun, is a continuous curve. Moreover, the colour rendering index (CRI) of tungsten-halogen headlamps (≥0.98) is much closer than that of HID headlamps (~0.75) to standardised sunlight (1.00). Studies have shown no significant safety effect of this degree of CRI variation in headlighting.[26][27][28][29] [edit] Advantages [edit] Increased safety The HID headlamp light sources (bulbs) offer substantially greater luminance and luminous flux than halogen bulbs – about 3000 lumens and 90 mcd/m2 versus 1400 lumens and 30 mcd/m2. If the higher-output HID light source is used in a well-engineered headlamp optic, the driver gets more usable light. Studies have demonstrated drivers react faster and more accurately to roadway obstacles with good HID headlamps rather than halogen ones.[30] Hence, good HID headlamps contribute to driving safety.[31] The contrary argument is that HID headlamps can negatively impact the vision of oncoming traffic due to their high intensity and "flashing" effect due to the rapid transition between low and high illumination in the field of illumination, thus increasing the risk of a head-on collision between the HID-enabled vehicle and a blinded oncoming driver. [edit] Efficacy and output HID burners give higher efficacy (produce more light from less power) than halogen bulbs. The highest-intensity halogen headlamp bulbs, H9 and HIR1, produce 2100 to 2530 lumens from approximately 70 watts at 13.2 volts. A D2S HID burner produces 3200 lumens from approximately 42 watts during stable operation.[23] The reduced power consumption means less fuel consumption, with resultant less CO2 emission per vehicle fitted with HID lighting (1.3 g/km assuming that 30% of engine running time is with the lights on). [edit] Longevity The average service life of an HID lamp is 2000 hours, compared to between 450 and 1000 hours for a halogen lamp.[32] [edit] Disadvantages [edit] Glare Vehicles equipped with HID headlamps are required by ECE regulation 48 also to be equipped with headlamp lens cleaning systems and automatic beam levelling control. Both of these measures are intended to reduce the tendency for high-output headlamps to cause high levels of glare to other road users. In North America, ECE R48 does not apply and while lens cleaners and beam levellers are permitted, they are not required;[33] HID headlamps are markedly less prevalent in the US, where they have produced significant glare complaints.[34] Scientific study of headlamp glare has shown that for any given intensity level, the light from HID headlamps is 40% more glaring than the light from tungsten-halogen headlamps.[35] [edit] Mercury content HID headlamp bulb types D1R, D1S, D2R, D2S and 9500 contain the toxic heavy metal mercury. The disposal of mercury-containing vehicle parts is increasingly regulated throughout the world, for example under US EPA regulations. Newer HID bulb designs D3R, D3S, D4R, and D4S which are in production since 2004 contain no mercury,[36][37] but are not electrically or physically compatible with headlamps designed for previous bulb types. [edit] Lack of backward-compatibility The arc light source in an HID headlamp is fundamentally different in size, shape, orientation, and luminosity distribution compared to the filament light source used in tungsten-halogen headlamps. For that reason, HID-specific optics are used to collect and distribute the light. HID burners cannot effectively or safely be installed in optics designed to take filament bulbs; doing so results in improperly-focused beam patterns and excessive glare, and is therefore illegal in almost all countries.[38] Moreover, most developed countries enforce the ECE Regulation requirement that HID headlamps be equipped with lens cleaning and automatic headlamp self-levelling systems, which usually are absent on vehicles not originally equipped with HID lamps.[39] [edit] Cost HID headlamps are significantly more costly to produce, install, purchase, and repair. The extra cost of the HID lights may exceed the fuel cost savings through their reduced power consumption, though some of this cost disadvantage is offset by the longer lifespan of the HID burner relative to halogen bulbs. [edit] LED light sources The first series-production LED headlamps on the Lexus LS 600h Automotive headlamp applications using light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have been undergoing very active development since 2004.[40][41] The first series-production LED headlamps were factory-installed on the Lexus LS 600h / LS 600h L starting with the 2008 models. Low beam, front position light and sidemarker functions are performed by LEDs; high beam and turn signal functions use filament bulbs. The headlamp is supplied by Koito. Full-LED headlamps supplied by AL-Automotive Lighting were fitted on the 2008 V10 Audi R8 sports car except in North America. The Hella headlamps on the 2009 Cadillac Escalade Platinum became the first U.S. market all-LED headlamps. Present designs, such as those available as optional equipment on the 2010 Toyota Prius, give performance between halogen and HID headlamps,[42] with system power consumption slightly lower than other headlamps, longer lifespans and more flexible design possibilities.[43][44] As LED technology continues to evolve, the performance of LED headlamps is predicted to improve to approach, meet, and perhaps one day surpass that of HID headlamps.[45] The limiting factors with LED headlamps presently include high system expense, regulatory delays and uncertainty, and logistical issues created by LED operating characteristics. LEDs are commonly considered to be low-heat devices due to the public's familiarity with small, low-output LEDs used for electronic control panels and other applications requiring only small amounts of light. However, LEDs actually produce a significant amount of heat per unit of light output. Rather than being emitted together with the light as is the case with conventional light sources, an LED's heat is produced at the rear of the emitters. The cumulative heat of numerous high-output LEDs operating for prolonged periods poses thermal-management challenges for plastic headlamp housings. Prolonged operation above the maximum junction temperature will permanently degrade the LEDs and ultimately shorten the device's life. The need to keep LED junction temperatures low at high power levels always requires additional thermal management measures such as heatsinks and/or cooling fans which are typically quite expensive.[46] Additional facets of the thermal issues with LED headlamps reveal themselves in cold ambient temperatures. Not only must heat be removed from the rear of the headlamp so that the housing does not deform or melt, but heat must in addition be effectively applied to thaw snow and ice from the front lenses, which are not heated by the comparatively small amount of infrared radiation emitted forward with the light from LEDs.[47] LEDs are increasingly being adopted for signal functions such as parking lamps, brake lamps and turn signals as well as daytime running lamps, as in those applications they offer significant advantages over filament bulbs with fewer engineering challenges than headlamps pose. [edit] Beam aim control [edit] Headlamp levelling systems The 1948 Citroen 2CV was launched in France with a manual headlamp levelling system, controlled by the driver with knob through a mechanical rod linkage. This allowed the driver to adjust the vertical aim of the headlamps to compensate for the passenger and cargo load in the vehicle. In 1954, Cibié introduced an automatic headlamp levelling system linked to the vehicle's suspension system to keep the headlamps correctly aimed regardless of vehicle load, without driver intervention. The first vehicle to be so equipped was the Panhard Dyna Z. Beginning in the 1970s, Germany and some other European countries began requiring remote-control headlamp levelling systems that permit the driver to lower the lamps' aim by means of a dashboard control lever or knob if the rear of the vehicle is weighted down with passengers or cargo, which would tend to raise the lamps' aim angle and create glare. Such systems typically use stepper motors at the headlamp and a rotary switch on the dash marked "0", "1", "2", "3" for different beam heights, "0" being the "normal" (and highest) position for when the car is lightly loaded. Internationalised ECE Regulation 48, in force in most of the world outside North America, currently specifies a limited range within which the vertical aim of the headlamps must be maintained under various vehicle load conditions; if the vehicle isn't equipped with an adaptive suspension sufficient to keep the headlamps aimed correctly regardless of load, a headlamp levelling system is required.[48] The regulation stipulates a more stringent version of this antiglare measure if the vehicle has headlamps with low beam light source(s) that produce more than 2,000 lumens – xenon bulbs and certain high-power halogens, for example. Such vehicles must be equipped with headlamp self-levelling systems that sense the vehicle's degree of squat due to cargo load and road inclination, and automatically adjust the headlamps' vertical aim to keep the beam correctly oriented without any action required by the driver.[48] Levelling systems are not required by the North American regulations. Recent American research, however, suggests automatic levellers on all headlamps, not just those with high-power light sources, would give drivers substantial safety benefits of better seeing and less glare.[49] [edit] Directional headlamps 1928 Willys-Knight 70A Touring. Notice the directional headlight in the middle. Directional (steering) headlamps on a Citroën DS – the driver can see his way through curves. These provide improved lighting for cornering. Some automobiles have their headlamps connected to the steering mechanism so the lights will follow the movement of the front wheels. Czech Tatra was an early implementer of such a technique, producing in the 1930s a vehicle with a central directional headlamp. The American 1948 Tucker Sedan was likewise equipped with a third central headlamp connected mechanically to the steering system. The 1967 French Citroën DS and 1970 Citroën SM were equipped[50] with an elaborate dynamic headlamp positioning system that adjusted the headlamps' horizontal and vertical positioning in response to inputs from the vehicle's steering and suspension systems, though US regulations required this system to be removed from those models when sold in the USA. The D series cars equipped with the system used cables connecting the long range headlamps to a lever on the steering relay while the inner long range headlamps on the SM used a sealed hydraulic system using a glycerin based fluid instead of mechanical cables. Both these systems were of the same design as their respective cars' headlamp leveling systems. The cables of the D system tended to rust in the cable sheaths while the SM system gradually leaked fluid, causing the long range lamps to turn inward, looking "cross-eyed." A manual adjustment was provided but once it was to the end of its travel the system required refilling with fluid or replacement of the tubes and dashpots. (Source: Citroën D and SM parts manuals listing the parts of their respective systems) As a note, the Citroën SM non-USA/Canada market vehicles were equipped with heating of the headlamp cover glasses, this heat supplied by ducts carrying warm air from the radiator exhaust to the space between the headlamp lenses and the cover glasses. (Source: Citroën SM parts manual listing the ducts and mountings). This provided demisting/defogging of the entire interior of the cover glasses, keeping the glass clear of mist/fog over the entire surface. The glasses have thin stripes on their surfaces that are heated by the headlight beams, however, the ducted warm air provides demisting when the headlamps are not turned on. The glasses' stripes on both D and SM cars appear similar to rear windshield glass electric defogger heating strips, but they are passive, not electrified. [edit] Advanced front-lighting system (AFS) There has been a recent resurgence in interest in the idea of moving or optimizing the headlight beam in response not only to vehicular steering and suspension dynamics, but also to ambient weather and visibility conditions, vehicle speed, and road curvature and contour. A task force under the EUREKA organisation, composed primarily of European automakers, lighting companies and regulators began working to develop design and performance specifications for what is known as advanced front-lighting systems, commonly AFS.[51] Manufacturers such as BMW, Toyota,[52] Škoda[53] and Vauxhall/Opel[54] have released vehicles equipped with AFS since 2003. Rather than the mechanical linkages employed in earlier directional-headlamp systems, AFS relies on electronic sensors, transducers and actuators. Other AFS techniques include special auxiliary optical systems within a vehicle's headlamp housings. These auxiliary systems may be switched on and off as the vehicle and operating conditions call for light or darkness at the angles covered by the beam the auxiliary optics produce. A typical system measures steering angle and vehicle speed to swivel the headlamps.[55] The most advanced AFS systems use GPS signals to anticipate changes in road curvature, rather than simply reacting to them.[56] [edit] Automatic beam switching Main article: Automatic headlight dimmer Even when the high beam is warranted by prevailing conditions, drivers generally do not use them.[57] There have long been efforts, particularly in America, to devise an effective automatic beam selection system to relieve the driver of the need to select and activate the correct beam as traffic, weather, and road conditions change. Early systems like Cadillac's Autronic Eye appeared in 1952 with an electric eye atop the dashboard (later behind the radiator grill) which was supposed to switch between low and high beam in response to oncoming traffic. These systems could not accurately discern headlamps from non-vehicular light sources such as streetlights, they did not switch to low beam when the driver approached a vehicle from behind, and they spuriously switched to low beam in response to road sign reflections of the vehicle's own headlamps. Present systems based on imaging CMOS cameras can detect and respond appropriately to leading and oncoming vehicles while disregarding streetlights, road signs, and other spurious signals. Camera-based beam selection was first released in 2005 on the Jeep Grand Cherokee, and has since then been incorporated into comprehensive driver assistance systems by automakers worldwide. [edit] Intelligent Light System Intelligent Light System is a headlamp beam control system introduced in 2006 which offers five different bi-xenon light functions,[58] each of which is suited to typical driving or weather conditions: * Country mode * Motorway mode * Enhanced fog lamps * Active light function * Cornering light function [edit] Adaptive Highbeam Main article: Adaptive highbeam Adaptive Highbeam Assist is the newest headlamp technology, introduced in spring 2009 in the new generation Mercedes-Benz E-Class. It is based on camera mounted behind the windshield and automatically and continuously adapts the headlamp range to the distance of vehicles ahead or which are oncoming. The same technology is also present in the BMW 7 series. BMW's version of this technology, developed in cooperation with Mobileye, uses swiveling headlights that always point in the direction the vehicle is steering so therefore the road ahead is better illuminated and obstacles become visible sooner [edit] Care Headlamp systems require periodic maintenance. Sealed beam headlamps are modular; when the filament burns out, the entire sealed beam is replaced. Most vehicles in North America made since the late 1980s use headlamp lens-reflector assemblies that are considered a part of the car, and just the bulb is replaced when it fails. Manufacturers vary the means by which the bulb is accessed and replaced. Headlamp aim must be properly checked and adjusted frequently, for misaimed lamps are dangerous and ineffective.[13] Over time, the headlamp lens can deteriorate. It can become pitted due to abrasion of road sand and pebbles, and can crack, admitting water into the headlamp. "Plastic" (polycarbonate) lenses can become cloudy and discoloured. This is due to oxidation of the painted-on lens hardcoat by ultraviolet light from the sun and the headlamp bulbs. If it is minor, it can be polished out using a reputable brand of a car polish that is intended for restoring the shine to chalked paint. In more advanced stages, the deterioration extends through the actual plastic material, rendering the headlamp useless and necessitating complete replacement. Sanding or aggressively polishing the lenses, or plastic headlight restoration, can buy some time, but doing so removes the protective coating from the lens, which when so stripped will deteriorate faster and more severely. The reflector, made out of vapourised aluminum deposited in an extremely thin layer on a metal, glass or plastic substrate, can become dirty, oxidised, or burnt, and lose its specularity. This can happen if water enters the headlamp, if bulbs of higher than specified wattage are installed, or simply with age and use. Reflectors thus degraded, if they cannot be cleaned, must be replaced. [edit] Lens cleaners Headlamp washers in action on a Volkswagen GTI Dirt buildup on headlamp lenses increases glare to other road users, even at levels too low to reduce seeing performance significantly for the driver. Therefore, headlamp lens cleaners are required by ECE Regulation 48 on vehicles equipped with low-beam headlamps using light sources that have a reference luminous flux of 2,000 lumens or more.[48] This includes all HID headlamps and some high-power halogen units. Some cars have lens cleaners fitted as standard or available as optional equipment even where the headlamp specifications and/or prevailing technical regulations do not require them. North America, for example, does not use ECE regulations, and FMVSS 108 does not require lens cleaners on any headlamps, though they are permitted. Lens cleaning systems come in two main varieties: a small motor-driven wiper blade or brush conceptually similar to those used on the windshield of the car, or a fixed or pop-up high-pressure sprayer which cleans the lenses with a spray of windshield washer fluid. Some cars with retractable headlamps, such as the original Mazda Miata have a squeegee at the front of the lamp recess which automatically wipes the lenses as they are raised or lowered. The effectiveness of this depends on the lamps’ being wet from rain, since there are no headlamp washers. [edit] See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Headlamp * Headlight flashing * Automotive lighting * Automotive lamp types * Automotive night vision * Hidden headlamps * Fog * World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations * Non-glaring headlamp * Lighting-up time * Twilight Sentinel [edit] References 1. ^ Varghese, Cherian; Shankar, Umesh (May 2007). "Passenger Vehicle Occupant Fatalities by Day and Night – A Contrast". Traffic Safety Facts, Research Note (DOT HS 810 637) (NHTSA’s National Center for Statistics and Analysis). http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/810637.PDF. Retrieved 2010-12-30. 2. ^ Georgano, G. N. (2002). Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886-1930 (A World of Wheels Series). Mason Crest. ISBN 9781590844915. 3. ^ World Car Catalog 4. ^ ECE R112PDF (313 KB) 5. ^ ECE R98PDF (843 KB) 6. ^ FMVSS No. 108PDF (2.00 MB) 7. ^ Rumar, Kåre (2000). Relative merits of the U.S. and ECE high-beam maximum intensities and of two- and four-headlamp systems. UMTRI. http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/49438. 8. ^ "Headlamp traffic-handedness". Danielsternlighting.com. 2008-01-28. http://www.danielsternlighting.com/tech/lights/codes/codes.html#Dip. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 9. ^ "Ya es ley el uso obligatorio de las luces bajas para circular de día". Clarín. 08-09-2001. http://www.clarin.com/diario/2001/08/09/s-03801.htm. Retrieved 01-29-2010. 10. ^ a b "Where Does The Glare Come From?" (NHTSA glare response + white paper on headlamp performance, glare, and regulation)PDF (463 KB) 11. ^ Grueninger, Wes (5 March 2008). "Prometheus, Bound: The Difference Between American and European Car Lighting". Motive Magazine. http://www.webcitation.org/5vLTIzlak. 12. ^ a b c Headlamp industry veteran engineer's chronology & commentary on headlamp performance, glare & regulationPDF (3.02 MB) 13. ^ a b "Headlamp aiming specifications & procedures". Danielsternlighting.com. 2008-01-28. http://www.danielsternlighting.com/tech/aim/aim.html. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 14. ^ a b c Headlamp Optical Systems Illustrated, Explained & Compared 15. ^ Spencer, Charles (1984-02). "Headlamp Developments With Dmc Reflectors Including Homofocal Arrangements" (http://www.sae.org/technical/papers/840041). Society of Automotive Engineers. 16. ^ Schumacher, Thomas W.; Hector Fratty, Guy Dorleans (1987-02). "Improvements in Low Beam Lighting Achieved by Complex Surface Reflectors". Society of Automotive Engineers. http://www.sae.org/technical/papers/870059. Retrieved 2009-05-06. 17. ^ Blusseau, Eric; Laurent Mottet (1997-02). "Complex Shape Headlamps: Eight Years of Experience". Society of Automotive Engineers. http://www.sae.org/technical/papers/970901. Retrieved 2009-05-06. 18. ^ Donohue, R.J.; Joseph, B.W. (1973-02). "Faceted Reflector Fog Lamp Eliminates Lens Fluting". Society of Automotive Engineers. http://www.sae.org/technical/papers/730279. Retrieved 2009-05-06. 19. ^ Fujita, Takeshige; Takeo Ichihara, Hiroo Oyama (1987-02). "Development of Mr (Multi Reflector) Headlamp (Headlamp With Slant Angle of 60 Degrees, Contributable to Future Vehicle Body Styling)". Society of Automotive Engineers. http://www.sae.org/technical/papers/870064. Retrieved 2009-05-06. 20. ^ H4 vs. 9003/HB2 bulbsPDF (52 KB) 21. ^ Chrysler/Sylvania Super-Lite turnpike beamPDF (8.60 MB) 22. ^ "MVLC FAQ (Motor Vehicle Lighting Council)". MVLC. http://www.hidxenonheadlights.com/pdf/MVLCbrochure.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-30. 23. ^ a b ECE Regulation 37 for motor vehicle filament bulbsPDF (1.78 MB) 24. ^ ECE Regulation 99 for motor vehicle HID bulbsPDF (268 KB) 25. ^ "49CFR564 Replaceable Bulb Headlamp Light Source List". Fmvss108.tripod.com. http://fmvss108.tripod.com/light_source_list.htm. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 26. ^ Sivak, M; Michael J. Flannagan, B. Schoettle (2006). "Mercury-free HID headlamps: glare and color rendering" (PDF). University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute. http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/55201/1/UMTRI-2004-37.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-03. 27. ^ Flannagan, Michael J; Juha Luoma, A.W. Gellatly, M. Sivak (1992). "Ranges of stop sign chromaticity under tungsten-halogen and high-intensity discharge illumination.". University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute. http://mirlyn-classic.lib.umich.edu/F/?func=direct&doc_number=005511681&local_base=UMTRI_PUB. Retrieved 2009-08-03. 28. ^ Flannagan, Michael J; M. Sivak (1989). "Colors of retroreflective traffic sign materials when illuminated by high-intensity-discharge headlights.". University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute. http://mirlyn-classic.lib.umich.edu/F/?func=direct&doc_number=005505889&local_base=UMTRI_PUB. Retrieved 2009-08-03. 29. ^ Sivak, M; T Sato, D.S. Battle, E.C. Traube, Michael J. Flannagan (1993). "In-traffic evaluations of high-intensity discharge headlamps: overall performance and color appearance of objects.". University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute. http://mirlyn-classic.lib.umich.edu/F/?func=direct&doc_number=005512803&local_base=UMTRI_PUB. Retrieved 2009-08-03. 30. ^ "Evaluation of High Intensity Discharge Automotive Forward Lighting" (PDF). http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/transportation/pdf/PAL/PAL2001-vanderlofske.pdf. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 31. ^ "VISION Congress report". Drivingvisionnews.com. 2008-09-02. http://www.drivingvisionnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=947. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 32. ^ "Osram Automotive Lamps Lighting Programme 2005-06". Friarsmarketing.com. http://www.friarsmarketing.com/Resources/Lighting%20Programme%20Autom%2367.pdf. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 33. ^ "The Difference Between US and European Lights". Motivemag.com. http://www.webcitation.org/5vLTIzlak. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 34. ^ NHTSA headlamp glare docket 35. ^ What Is Glare? p. 24 36. ^ "KOITO and DENSO Develop World's First Mercury-Free High-Intensity Discharge Headlamp System". Prnewswire.com. http://www.webcitation.org/5vLTdlT9h. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 37. ^ "HID headlamp system has a newly developed mercury-free discharge bulb". Goliath.ecnext.com. 2004-07-27. http://www.webcitation.org/5vLTibFQ2. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 38. ^ "HID kit retrofitment into halogen lamps — technical & legal considerations". Danielsternlighting.com. 2008-01-28. http://www.danielsternlighting.com/tech/bulbs/Hid/conversions/conversions.html. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 39. ^ "Be Careful: Dangerous Products! HID kits and the law". Hella. http://www.webcitation.org/5qIMaJAZS. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 40. ^ VW Golf Mk5 LED headlamp study and prototype as of 2005 41. ^ "New-generation LED headlamp prototype with performance equal to HID". Fourtitude.com. http://www.webcitation.org/5vLTN19qC. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 42. ^ "DVN Interview with Hella's Hans-Theo Dorissen, 2 June 2009". Drivingvisionnews.com. http://www.drivingvisionnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1397:interview-with-hans-theo-dorissen-&catid=38:previous-news&Itemid=191. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 43. ^ "Production LED headlamp technology & design as of 2007". Al-lighting.de. http://www.al-lighting.de/index.php?id=984. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 44. ^ "LED Headlights Introduced". TreeHugger. http://www.treehugger.com/files/2006/10/led_headlights.php. Retrieved 2009-11-29. 45. ^ "DVN Interview with AL's Michael Hamm, 8 July 2009". Drivingvisionnews.com. http://www.drivingvisionnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1474:interview-with-michael-hamm-&catid=1:latest-news. Retrieved 2010-12-29. 46. ^ LED Headlamps Illuminate the Way Forward 47. ^ Industry First LED Headlamp for Premium SUV 48. ^ a b c ECE R48PDF (649 KB) 49. ^ Flannagan, Michael J.; Michael Sivak, Brandon Schoettle (2007-11). "Benefits of Headlamp Leveling and Cleaning for Current U.S. Low Beams" (PDF). UMTRI. http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/58733/1/100247.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-25. 50. ^ "Myth or fact: The Citroën DS Pioneered directional headlights". dsgoddess.com. http://www.dsgoddess.com/specs/first-directional-headlights/. Retrieved 2009-11-29. 51. ^ EUREKA AFS task force 52. ^ "First Drive: 2004 Lexus RX 330". Edmunds.com. 2003-01-05. http://www.edmunds.com/apps/vdpcontainers/do/vdp/articleId=83157/pageNumber=1. Retrieved 2009-05-02. 53. ^ AFS on Skoda 54. ^ AFS on Opel/Vauxhall Insignia 55. ^ ABCs of AFS 56. ^ Predictive AFS via GPS Nav data 57. ^ Mefford, M.L.; Flannagan, M.J.; Bogard, S.E. (2006) (PDF). Real-world use of high-beam headlamps. University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute. http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/58716. Retrieved 2009-02-16. 58. ^ Daimler: New headlamp and night-view systems [show]v · d · eAutomotive design Part of the Automobile series Body Framework Automobile platform • Body-on-frame • Bumper • Cabrio coach • Chassis • Continental tire • Crumple zone • Dagmar bumpers • Decklid • Fender • Fender skirts • Grille • Hood • Hood scoop • Monocoque • Overhang • Pillar • Pontoon fenders • Quarter panel • Shaker scoop • Spoiler • Subframe • Tonneau Compartments Trunk/Boot/Dickie • Hood/Bonnet Doors Butterfly doors • Canopy door • Gull-wing door • Scissor doors • Sliding doors • Suicide door Glass Greenhouse • Power window • Quarter glass • Sunroof • Windshield/Windscreen • Windshield/Windscreen wiper Other Bumper sticker • Curb feeler • Hood ornament • Japan Black paint • Monsoonshield • Nerf bar • Tire/Tyre • Tow hitch • Truck accessory Exterior equipment Lighting Daytime running lamp • Headlamp • Hidden headlamps • High-intensity discharge lamps • Retroreflector • Sealed beam • Trafficators Legal and other Motor vehicle theft • Parking sensors • Vanity plate • Vehicle Identification Number • Vehicle registration plate • Vehicle horn • Windshield/Windscreen washer fluid • Wing mirror Interior equipment Instruments Backup camera • Boost gauge • Buzzer • Carputer • Electronic instrument cluster • Fuel gauge • Global Positioning System and Automotive navigation system • Head-up display • Idiot light • Malfunction Indicator Lamp • Night vision • Odometer • Radar detector • LIDAR detector • Speedometer • Tachometer • Trip computer Controls Bowden cable • Cruise control • Electronic throttle control • Gear stick • Hand brake • Manettino dial • Steering wheel • Throttle • Brake Theft deterrence Automatic vehicle location • Car alarm • Immobiliser • Power door locks • VIN etching Safety & seating Airbag • Armrest • Automatic seat belts • Bench seat • Bucket seat • Child safety lock • Rumble seat • Seat belt Other Air conditioning • Automobile accessory power • Car audio • Car phone • Center console • Dashboard • Flat tire • Glove compartment • RF connector • Power steering • Rear-view mirror • Sun visor Portal • Category Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headlamp" Categories: Vehicle parts | Automotive safety technologies | Lamps Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from July 2010 | Articles with unsourced statements from May 2009 Personal tools * Log in / create account Namespaces * Article * Discussion Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * Česky * Deutsch * Français * Italiano * Nederlands * 日本語 * Svenska * Türkçe * Tiếng Việt * Русский

powersports Return to the top

Powersports are a subset of the generalized category motorsports. Examples of powersport vehicles are motorcycles, ATVs, snowmobiles and PWCs. One of the defining features of any powersport is the use of an engine, in one form or another. Other defining features of powersport vehicles include the use of handlebars to control movement and the mounting of the rider "on" the machine, exposed to the elements. Powersports have always had a following as spectator sports, and with the introduction of the X-Games, even the most extreme, fringe varieties have become commonly known.

parts Return to the top

Parts is children's book written and illustrated by Tedd Arnold. It was first published in 1997. Written in rhyme with cartoon-like watercolor illustrations, Parts is the first in Arnold's trilogy on the theme of body parts. It was followed by More Parts in 2001 and Even More Parts in 2004. In 1998, it won the "Tellable" Stories for Ages 4-7 Award (Storytelling World) and in 1999, the Colorado Children's Book Award.[1] Contents [hide] * 1 Plot summary of Parts * 2 Sequels o 2.1 More Parts o 2.2 Even More Parts * 3 Bibliographic information * 4 Notes and references * 5 External links [edit] Plot summary of Parts The story is aimed at 4-7 year-olds. It was inspired by a real life experience, when the author's young son, Walter, was disturbed by losing his first tooth.[2] The (unnamed) protagonist of Parts is little boy who notices that his skin is peeling, some of his hairs remain on the comb, and his tooth is loose. His anxiety reaches its peak when a piece of mucus (which he assumes is a piece of his brain) falls out of his nose. Convinced that he is falling apart and will soon become toothless, skinless, brainless, and bald, the boy tries to hold himself together with his father's masking tape until he resembles a mummy. Finding him wrapped in the masking tape, his parents then explain to him about how parts of his body renew themselves. [edit] Sequels [edit] More Parts This sequel to Parts was first published in 2001. Like its predecessor, the story is aimed at 4-7 year olds, written in rhyme and illustrated by the author. The little boy from Parts now becomes frightened by his literal interpretation of the idomatic expressions involving body parts that he hears adults using. Imagining that these expressions could lead to his body falling apart (his central preoccupation in Parts), the boy invents various kinds of protection for himself. For example, when his father asks him "to give a hand", he glues gloves to his hands to keep them from coming off his arms. Other expressions covered in the story include: * "It’s sure to crack you up." * "Stretch your legs." * "Hold your tongue." * "Scream your lungs out." [edit] Even More Parts This final book in Arnold's trilogy was published in 2004, and is again illustrated by him. Unlike its two predecessors, Even More Parts is not, strictly speaking, a narrative and is not written in rhyme. Aimed at children 4-8, it is an introduction to the use of idioms or figures of speech in language, and more specifically to the use of idioms involving body parts. The protagonist is the same little boy in the first two books of the series, although he now has a name – Chip. Chip has compiled a list of all the worrying and mystifying things he has heard from adults, and makes himself a suit of armour to protect him while he is at school. The remainder of the book is an illustrated list of the sayings that have puzzled him. For example, one page shows the students in a classroom throwing their eyeballs at the teacher when she says, "I want all eyes on me." The illustrations often feature minor characters from the previous books – Chip's toy super hero, dinosaur and tank. [edit] Bibliographic information * Tedd Arnold, Parts, New York: Dial Books for Young Readers, 1997. Illustrated by Tedd Arnold, 32 pages. ISBN 0803720408 * Tedd Arnold, More Parts, New York: Dial Books for Young Readers, 2001. Illustrated by Tedd Arnold, 32 pages. ISBN 0142501492 * Tedd Arnold, Even More Parts: Idioms from Head to Toe, New York: Dial Books for Young Readers, 2004. Illustrated by Tedd Arnold, 40 pages. ISBN 0803729383 (Other editions of these books have been published by Puffin and Scholastic Inc.)

repair Return to the top

Maintenance, repair, and operations[1] (MRO) or Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul[2] involves fixing any sort of mechanical or electrical device should it become out of order or broken (known as repair, unscheduled or casualty maintenance). It also includes performing routine actions which keep the device in working order (known as scheduled maintenance) or prevent trouble from arising (preventive maintenance). MRO may be defined as, "All actions which have the objective of retaining or restoring an item in or to a state in which it can perform its required function. The actions include the combination of all technical and corresponding administrative, managerial, and supervision actions." [3] MRO operations can be categorised by whether the product remains the property of the customer, i.e. a service is being offered, or whether the product is bought by the reprocessing organisation and sold to any customer wishing to make the purchase. (Guadette, 2002) The former of these represents a closed loop supply chain and usually has the scope of maintenance, repair or overhaul of the product. The latter of the categorisations is an open loop supply chain and is typified by refurbishment and remanufacture. The main characteristic of the closed loop system is that the demand for a product is matched with the supply of a used product. Neglecting asset write-offs and exceptional activities the total population of the product between the customer and the service provider remains constant Contents [hide] * 1 Engineering * 2 Maintenance types o 2.1 Preventive maintenance o 2.2 Corrective maintenance * 3 MRO software * 4 MRO goods * 5 See also * 6 References [edit] Engineering In telecommunication, and engineering in general, the term maintenance has the following meanings: 1. Any activity – such as tests, measurements, replacements, adjustments and repairs — intended to retain or restore a functional unit in or to a specified state in which the unit can perform its required functions.[4] 2. For material — all action taken to retain material in a serviceable condition or to restore it to serviceability. It includes inspection, testing, servicing, classification as to serviceability, repair, rebuilding, and reclamation.[4] 3. For material — all supply and repair action taken to keep a force in condition to carry out its mission.[4] 4. For material — the routine recurring work required to keep a facility (plant, building, structure, ground facility, utility system, or other real property) in such condition that it may be continuously used, at its original or designed capacity and efficiency for its intended purpose.[4] Manufacturers and Industrial Supply Companies often refer to MRO as opposed to Original Equipment Manufacture (OEM). OEM includes any activity related to the direct manufacture of goods, where MRO refers to any maintenance and repair activity to keep a manufacturing plant running. Industrial supply companies can generally be sorted into two types: * the ones who cater to the MRO market generally carry a broad range of items such as fasteners, conveyors, cleaning goods, plumbing, and tools to keep a plant running. * OEM supply companies generally provide a smaller range of goods in much larger quantities with much lower prices, selling materials that will be regularly consumed in the manufacturing process to create the finished item. [edit] Maintenance types Generally speaking, there are two types of maintenance in use: * Preventive maintenance, where equipment is maintained before break down occurs. This type of maintenance has many different variations and is subject of various researches to determine best and most efficient way to maintain equipment. Recent studies have shown that Preventive maintenance is effective in preventing age related failures of the equipment. For random failure patterns which amount to 80% of the failure patterns, condition monitoring proves to be effective. * Corrective maintenance, where equipment is maintained after break down. This maintenance is often most expensive because worn equipment can damage other parts and cause multiple damage. [edit] Preventive maintenance Main article: Preventive maintenance Preventive maintenance is maintenance performed in an attempt to avoid failures, unnecessary production loss and HSE violation. As equipment cannot be maintained at all times, some way is needed to decide when it is proper to perform maintenance. Normally, this is done by deciding some inspection/maintenance intervals, and sticking to this interval more or less affected by what you find during these activities. The result of this is that most of the maintenance performed is unnecessary;[citation needed] it even adds substantial wear to the equipment. Also, you have no guarantee that the equipment will continue to work even if you are maintaining it according to the maintenance plan. The effectiveness of a preventive maintenance schedule depends on the RCM analysis which it was based on, and the ground rules used for cost-effectivity.[3] Further information: Planned maintenance [edit] Corrective maintenance Repair shop Main article: Corrective maintenance Corrective maintenance is probably the most commonly used approach, but it is easy to see its limitations. When equipment fails, it often leads to downtime in production. In most cases this is costly business. Also, if the equipment needs to be replaced, the cost of replacing it alone can be substantial. It is also important to consider health, safety and environment (HSE) issues related to malfunctioning equipment. Corrective maintenance can be defined as the maintenance which is required when an item has failed or worn out, to bring it back to working order. Corrective maintenance is carried out on all items where the consequences of failure or wearing out are not significant and the cost of this maintenance is not greater than preventive maintenance. [edit] MRO software Main article: MRO Software In many organizations because of the number of devices or products that need to be maintained or the complexity of systems, there is a need to manage the information with software packages. This is particularly the case in aerospace (e.g. airline fleets), military installations, large plants (e.g. manufacturing, power generation, petrochemical) and ships. These software tools help engineers and technicians in increasing the system availability and reducing costs and repair times as well as reducing material supply time and increasing material availability by improving supply chain communication. As MRO involves working with an organization’s products, resources, suppliers and customers, MRO packages have to interface with many enterprise business software systems (PLM, EAM, ERP, SCM, CRM). One of the functions of such software is the configuration of bills of materials or BOMs, taking the component parts list from engineering (eBOM) and manufacturing (mBOM) and updating it from “as delivered” through “as maintained” to “as used”. Another function is project planning logistics, for example identifying the critical path on the list of tasks to be carried out (inspection, diagnosis, locate/order parts and service) to calculate turnaround times (TAT). Other tasks that software can perform: * Planning operations, * Managing execution of events, * Management of assets (parts, tools and equipment inventories), * Knowledge-base data on: o Maintenance service history, o Serial numbered parts, o Reliability data: MTBF, MTTB (mean time to breakdown), MTBR (mean time between removals), o Maintenance and repair documentation and best practices, o Warranty/guarantee documents. Many of these tasks are addressed in Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS). Data standards have been developed around these activities, most notably EAMXML and MIMOSA. [edit] MRO goods MRO goods are typically defined as any goods used in the creation of a product but not in the final product itself. Examples include: * the machinery used to make a product * spare parts for the machinery that creates the product, and * items used to maintain the facility in which the product is made.

experience Return to the top

Experience as a general concept comprises knowledge of or skill in or observation of some thing or some event gained through involvement in or exposure to that thing or event.[1] The history of the word experience aligns it closely with the concept of experiment. The concept of experience generally refers to know-how or procedural knowledge, rather than propositional knowledge: on-the-job training rather than book-learning. Philosophers dub knowledge based on experience "empirical knowledge" or "a posteriori knowledge". The interrogation of experience has a long tradition in continental philosophy. Experience plays an important role in the philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard. The German term Erfahrung, often translated into English as "experience", has a slightly different implication, connoting the coherency of life's experiences. A person with considerable experience in a certain field can gain a reputation as an expert. Certain religious traditions (such as types of Buddhism, Surat Shabd Yoga, mysticism and Pentecostalism) and educational paradigms with, for example, the conditioning of military recruit-training (also known as "boot camps"), stress the experiential nature of human epistemology. This stands in contrast to alternatives: traditions of dogma, logic or reasoning. Participants in activities such as tourism, extreme sports and recreational drug-use also tend to stress the importance of experience. Contents [hide] * 1 Types of experience o 1.1 Physical experience o 1.2 Mental experience o 1.3 Emotional experience o 1.4 Spiritual experience o 1.5 Social experience o 1.6 Virtual experience and simulation gaming o 1.7 Immediacy of experience o 1.8 Subjective experience * 2 Contexts of experience * 3 Changes in experience through history * 4 Alternatives to experience * 5 Writing * 6 Art * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 External links [edit] Types of experience The word "experience" may refer, somewhat ambiguously, both to mentally unprocessed immediately perceived events as well as to the purported wisdom gained in subsequent reflection on those events or interpretation of them. Some wisdom-experience accumulates over a period of time,[2] though one can also experience (and gain general wisdom-experience from) a single specific momentary event. One may also differentiate between (for example) physical, mental, emotional, spiritual, vicarious and virtual experience(s). [edit] Physical experience Main article: Physical Property Physical experience occurs whenever an object or environment changes. [3] In other words, physical experiences relate to observables. They need not involve modal properties nor mental experiences. [edit] Mental experience Main article: Mind Mental experience involves the aspect of intellect and consciousness experienced as combinations of thought, perception, memory, emotion, will[citation needed] and imagination, including all unconscious cognitive processes. The term can refer, by implication, to a thought process. Mental experience and its relation to the physical brain form an area of philosophical debate: some identity theorists originally argued that the identity of brain and mental states held only for a few sensations. Most theorists, however, generalized the view to cover all mental experience.[4] Mathematicians can exemplify cumulative mental experience in the approaches and skills with which they work. Mathematical realism, like realism in general, holds that mathematical entities exist independently of the human mind. Thus humans do not invent mathematics, but rather discover and experience it, and any other intelligent beings in the universe would presumably do the same. This point of view regards only one sort of mathematics as discoverable; it sees triangles, right angles, and curves, for example, as real entities, not just the creations of the human mind. Some working mathematicians have espoused mathematical realism as they see themselves experiencing naturally-occurring objects. Examples include Paul Erdős and Kurt Gödel. Gödel believed in an objective mathematical reality that could be perceived in a manner analogous to sense perception. Certain principles (for example: for any two objects, there is a collection of objects consisting of precisely those two objects) could be directly seen to be true, but some conjectures, like the continuum hypothesis, might prove undecidable just on the basis of such principles. Gödel suggested that quasi-empirical methodology such as experience could provide sufficient evidence to be able to reasonably assume such a conjecture. With experience, there are distinctions depending on what sort of existence one takes mathematical entities to have, and how we know about them.[citation needed] [edit] Emotional experience Main article: Emotion Humans can rationalize falling in (and out) of love as "emotional experience". Societies which lack institutional arranged marriages can call on emotional experience in individuals to influence mate-selection.[5] The concept of emotional experience also appears in the notion of emotional intelligence[6] and empathy. [edit] Spiritual experience Main article: Religious experience Newberg and Newberg provide a view on spiritual experience.[7] Mystics can describe their visions as "spiritual experiences". However, psychology may explain the same experiences in terms of altered states of consciousness, which may come about accidentally through (for example) very high fever, infections such as meningitis, sleep deprivation, fasting, oxygen deprivation, nitrogen narcosis (deep diving), psychosis, temporal-lobe epilepsy, or a traumatic accident. People can likewise achieve such experiences more deliberately through recognized mystical practices such as sensory deprivation or mind-control techniques, hypnosis, meditation, prayer, or mystical disciplines such as mantra meditation, yoga, Sufism, dream yoga, or surat shabda yoga). Some "primitive religions" encourage spiritual experiences through the ingestion of psychoactive drugs such as alcohol and opiates, but more commonly with entheogenic plants and substances such as cannabis, salvia divinorum, psilocybin mushrooms, peyote, DXM, ayahuasca, or datura. Another way to induce spiritual experience through an altered state of consciousness involves psychoacoustics, binaural beats, or light-and-sound stimulation. [edit] Social experience Main article: Socialization Growing up and living within a society can foster the development and observation of social experience.[8] Social experience provides individuals with the skills and habits necessary for participating within their own societies, as a society itself is formed[citation needed] through a plurality of shared experiences forming norms, customs, values, traditions, social roles, symbols and languages. [edit] Virtual experience and simulation gaming Main articles: Virtual Reality and Simulation Game Using computer simulations can enable a person or groups of persons to have virtual experiences in virtual reality.[9] Role-playing games treat "experience" (and its acquisition) as an important, measurable, and valuable commodity. Many role-playing video games, for instance, feature units of measurement used to quantify or assist a player-character's progression through the game - called experience points. [edit] Immediacy of experience Someone able to recount an event they witnessed or took part in has "first hand experience". First hand experience of the "you had to be there" variety can seem especially valuable and privileged, but it often remains potentially subject to errors in sense-perception and in personal interpretation. Second-hand experience can offer richer resources: recorded and/or summarised from first-hand observers or experiencers or from instruments, and potentially expressing multiple points of view. Third-hand experience, based on indirect and possibly unreliable rumour or hearsay, can (even given reliable accounts) potentially stray perilously close to blind honouring of authority. [edit] Subjective experience Subjective experience can involve a state of individual subjectivity, perception on which one builds one's own state of reality; a reality based on one’s interaction with one's environment. The subjective experience depends on one’s individual ability to process data, to store and internalize it. For example: our senses collect data, which we then process according to biological programming (genetics), neurological network-relationships and other variables such as relativity etc., all of which affect our individual experience of any given situation in such a way as to render it subjective. [edit] Contexts of experience Experience plays an important role in experiential groups.[10] [edit] Changes in experience through history Some post-modernists suggest that the nature of human experiencing (quite apart from the details of the experienced surrounds) has undergone qualitative change during transition from the pre-modern through the modern to the post-modern.[11] [edit] Alternatives to experience Immanuel Kant contrasted experience with reason: "Nothing, indeed, can be more harmful or more unworthy of the philosopher, than the vulgar appeal to so-called experience. Such experience would never have existed at all, if at the proper time, those institutions had been established in accordance with ideas."[12] [edit] Writing The American author Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote an essay entitled "Experience" (published in 1844), in which he asks readers to disregard emotions that could alienate them from the divine; it provides a somewhat pessimistic representation of the Transcendentalism associated with Emerson.

ex·pe·ri·ence    /ɪkˈspɪəriəns/ Show Spelled [ik-speer-ee-uhns] Show IPA noun, verb, -enced, -enc·ing. –noun 1. a particular instance of personally encountering or undergoing something: My encounter with the bear in the woods was a frightening experience. 2. the process or fact of personally observing, encountering, or undergoing something: business experience. 3. the observing, encountering, or undergoing of things generally as they occur in the course of time: to learn from experience; the range of human experience. 4. knowledge or practical wisdom gained from what one has observed, encountered, or undergone: a man of experience. 5. Philosophy . the totality of the cognitions given by perception; all that is perceived, understood, and remembered. –verb (used with object) 6. to have experience of; meet with; undergo; feel: to experience nausea. 7. to learn by experience. —Idiom 8. experience religion, to undergo a spiritual conversion by which one gains or regains faith in god. Use experience in a Sentence See images of experience Search experience on the Web Origin: 1350–1400; ME < L experientia, equiv. to experient- (s. of experiēns, ptp. of experīrī to try, test; see ex-1 , peril) + -ia n. suffix; see -ence —Related forms ex·pe·ri·ence·a·ble, adjective ex·pe·ri·ence·less, adjective post·ex·pe·ri·ence, adjective pre·ex·pe·ri·ence, noun, verb (used with object), -enced, -enc·ing. re·ex·pe·ri·ence, verb, -enced, -enc·ing. —Synonyms 6. encounter, know, endure, suffer. Experience, undergo refer to encountering situations, conditions, etc., in life, or to having certain sensations or feelings. Experience implies being affected by what one meets with: to experience a change of heart, bitter disappointment. Undergo usually refers to the bearing or enduring of something hard, difficult, disagreeable, or dangerous: to undergo severe hardships, an operation. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To experience Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : experience go through, see, undergo, know, live View more related words » Marriage & Family Therapy from a Catholic perspective. Masters and Doctorate Degrees IPSciences.edu Chinese Classes for Kids Free Trial Class Foreign Language Classes by Lango! Sponsored Results www.langobroward.com World English Dictionary experience (ɪkˈspɪərɪəns) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n 1. direct personal participation or observation; actual knowledge or contact: experience of prison life 2. a particular incident, feeling, etc, that a person has undergone: an experience to remember 3. accumulated knowledge, esp of practical matters: a man of experience 4. a. the totality of characteristics, both past and present, that make up the particular quality of a person, place, or people b. the impact made on an individual by the culture of a people, nation, etc: the American experience 5. philosophy a. Compare sense datum the content of a perception regarded as independent of whether the apparent object actually exists b. the faculty by which a person acquires knowledge of contingent facts about the world, as contrasted with reason c. the totality of a person's perceptions, feelings, and memories — vb 6. to participate in or undergo 7. to be emotionally or aesthetically moved by; feel: to experience beauty [C14: from Latin experientia, from experīrī to prove; related to Latin perīculum peril ] ex'perienceable — adj Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History experience late 14c., from O.Fr. experience , from L. experientia "knowledge gained by repeated trials," from experientem (nom. experiens ), prp. of experiri "to try, test," from ex- "out of" + peritus "experienced, tested." The v. (1530s) first meant "to test, try;" sense of "feel, undergo" first recorded 1580s. Related: Experienced ; experiences ; experiencing . Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Medical Dictionary experience ex·pe·ri·ence (ĭk-spēr'ē-əns) n. The feeling of emotions and sensations as opposed to thinking; involvement in what is happening rather than abstract reflection on an event. ex·pe'ri·ence v. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. Cite This Source Famous Quotations experience "The most important American addition to the World Exper..." "It is part of the educator's responsibility to see equa..." "Experiences in order to be educative must lead out into..." "The American experience stirred mankind from discovery ..." "The belief that all genuine education comes about throu..." More Quotes

Experience as a general concept comprises knowledge of or skill in or observation of some thing or some event gained through involvement in or exposure to that thing or event.[1] The history of the word experience aligns it closely with the concept of experiment. The concept of experience generally refers to know-how or procedural knowledge, rather than propositional knowledge: on-the-job training rather than book-learning. Philosophers dub knowledge based on experience "empirical knowledge" or "a posteriori knowledge". The interrogation of experience has a long tradition in continental philosophy. Experience plays an important role in the philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard. The German term Erfahrung, often translated into English as "experience", has a slightly different implication, connoting the coherency of life's experiences. A person with considerable experience in a certain field can gain a reputation as an expert. Certain religious traditions (such as types of Buddhism, Surat Shabd Yoga, mysticism and Pentecostalism) and educational paradigms with, for example, the conditioning of military recruit-training (also known as "boot camps"), stress the experiential nature of human epistemology. This stands in contrast to alternatives: traditions of dogma, logic or reasoning. Participants in activities such as tourism, extreme sports and recreational drug-use also tend to stress the importance of experience. Contents [hide] * 1 Types of experience o 1.1 Physical experience o 1.2 Mental experience o 1.3 Emotional experience o 1.4 Spiritual experience o 1.5 Social experience o 1.6 Virtual experience and simulation gaming o 1.7 Immediacy of experience o 1.8 Subjective experience * 2 Contexts of experience * 3 Changes in experience through history * 4 Alternatives to experience * 5 Writing * 6 Art * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 External links [edit] Types of experience The word "experience" may refer, somewhat ambiguously, both to mentally unprocessed immediately perceived events as well as to the purported wisdom gained in subsequent reflection on those events or interpretation of them. Some wisdom-experience accumulates over a period of time,[2] though one can also experience (and gain general wisdom-experience from) a single specific momentary event. One may also differentiate between (for example) physical, mental, emotional, spiritual, vicarious and virtual experience(s). [edit] Physical experience Main article: Physical Property Physical experience occurs whenever an object or environment changes. [3] In other words, physical experiences relate to observables. They need not involve modal properties nor mental experiences. [edit] Mental experience Main article: Mind Mental experience involves the aspect of intellect and consciousness experienced as combinations of thought, perception, memory, emotion, will[citation needed] and imagination, including all unconscious cognitive processes. The term can refer, by implication, to a thought process. Mental experience and its relation to the physical brain form an area of philosophical debate: some identity theorists originally argued that the identity of brain and mental states held only for a few sensations. Most theorists, however, generalized the view to cover all mental experience.[4] Mathematicians can exemplify cumulative mental experience in the approaches and skills with which they work. Mathematical realism, like realism in general, holds that mathematical entities exist independently of the human mind. Thus humans do not invent mathematics, but rather discover and experience it, and any other intelligent beings in the universe would presumably do the same. This point of view regards only one sort of mathematics as discoverable; it sees triangles, right angles, and curves, for example, as real entities, not just the creations of the human mind. Some working mathematicians have espoused mathematical realism as they see themselves experiencing naturally-occurring objects. Examples include Paul Erdős and Kurt Gödel. Gödel believed in an objective mathematical reality that could be perceived in a manner analogous to sense perception. Certain principles (for example: for any two objects, there is a collection of objects consisting of precisely those two objects) could be directly seen to be true, but some conjectures, like the continuum hypothesis, might prove undecidable just on the basis of such principles. Gödel suggested that quasi-empirical methodology such as experience could provide sufficient evidence to be able to reasonably assume such a conjecture. With experience, there are distinctions depending on what sort of existence one takes mathematical entities to have, and how we know about them.[citation needed] [edit] Emotional experience Main article: Emotion Humans can rationalize falling in (and out) of love as "emotional experience". Societies which lack institutional arranged marriages can call on emotional experience in individuals to influence mate-selection.[5] The concept of emotional experience also appears in the notion of emotional intelligence[6] and empathy. [edit] Spiritual experience Main article: Religious experience Newberg and Newberg provide a view on spiritual experience.[7] Mystics can describe their visions as "spiritual experiences". However, psychology may explain the same experiences in terms of altered states of consciousness, which may come about accidentally through (for example) very high fever, infections such as meningitis, sleep deprivation, fasting, oxygen deprivation, nitrogen narcosis (deep diving), psychosis, temporal-lobe epilepsy, or a traumatic accident. People can likewise achieve such experiences more deliberately through recognized mystical practices such as sensory deprivation or mind-control techniques, hypnosis, meditation, prayer, or mystical disciplines such as mantra meditation, yoga, Sufism, dream yoga, or surat shabda yoga). Some "primitive religions" encourage spiritual experiences through the ingestion of psychoactive drugs such as alcohol and opiates, but more commonly with entheogenic plants and substances such as cannabis, salvia divinorum, psilocybin mushrooms, peyote, DXM, ayahuasca, or datura. Another way to induce spiritual experience through an altered state of consciousness involves psychoacoustics, binaural beats, or light-and-sound stimulation. [edit] Social experience Main article: Socialization Growing up and living within a society can foster the development and observation of social experience.[8] Social experience provides individuals with the skills and habits necessary for participating within their own societies, as a society itself is formed[citation needed] through a plurality of shared experiences forming norms, customs, values, traditions, social roles, symbols and languages. [edit] Virtual experience and simulation gaming Main articles: Virtual Reality and Simulation Game Using computer simulations can enable a person or groups of persons to have virtual experiences in virtual reality.[9] Role-playing games treat "experience" (and its acquisition) as an important, measurable, and valuable commodity. Many role-playing video games, for instance, feature units of measurement used to quantify or assist a player-character's progression through the game - called experience points. [edit] Immediacy of experience Someone able to recount an event they witnessed or took part in has "first hand experience". First hand experience of the "you had to be there" variety can seem especially valuable and privileged, but it often remains potentially subject to errors in sense-perception and in personal interpretation. Second-hand experience can offer richer resources: recorded and/or summarised from first-hand observers or experiencers or from instruments, and potentially expressing multiple points of view. Third-hand experience, based on indirect and possibly unreliable rumour or hearsay, can (even given reliable accounts) potentially stray perilously close to blind honouring of authority. [edit] Subjective experience Subjective experience can involve a state of individual subjectivity, perception on which one builds one's own state of reality; a reality based on one’s interaction with one's environment. The subjective experience depends on one’s individual ability to process data, to store and internalize it. For example: our senses collect data, which we then process according to biological programming (genetics), neurological network-relationships and other variables such as relativity etc., all of which affect our individual experience of any given situation in such a way as to render it subjective. [edit] Contexts of experience Experience plays an important role in experiential groups.[10] [edit] Changes in experience through history Some post-modernists suggest that the nature of human experiencing (quite apart from the details of the experienced surrounds) has undergone qualitative change during transition from the pre-modern through the modern to the post-modern.[11] [edit] Alternatives to experience Immanuel Kant contrasted experience with reason: "Nothing, indeed, can be more harmful or more unworthy of the philosopher, than the vulgar appeal to so-called experience. Such experience would never have existed at all, if at the proper time, those institutions had been established in accordance with ideas."[12] [edit] Writing The American author Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote an essay entitled "Experience" (published in 1844), in which he asks readers to disregard emotions that could alienate them from the divine; it provides a somewhat pessimistic representation of the Transcendentalism associated with Emerson. [edit] Art In 2005 the art group Monochrom organized a series of happenings that ironically took up the implications of the term "experience": Experience the Experience.

built Return to the top

built    /bɪlt/ Show Spelled[bilt] Show IPA –verb 1. pt. and pp. of build. –adjective 2. Informal . a. of sound or sturdy construction: These cars are really built. b. having a good physique or figure: That lifeguard is really built! 3. Nautical . noting any member or part of a vessel assembled from pieces: built frame; built spar. Use built in a Sentence See images of built Search built on the Web —Related forms well-built, adjective Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : built reinforced, assembled, made-up, stacked, well-stacked View more related words » AARP Alamo® Discount Save up to 25% on a car rental with your AARP membership! Drive Happy® www.Alamo.com Eco-Friendly Luxury Homes Meet Nate from K. Hovnanian Homes Nature. Technology. Efficiency. Sponsored Results nateKHOV.com build    /bɪld/ Show Spelled [bild] Show IPA verb, built or ( Archaic ) build·ed; build·ing; noun –verb (used with object) 1. to construct (esp. something complex) by assembling and joining parts or materials: to build a house. 2. to establish, increase, or strengthen (often fol. by up ): to build a business; to build up one's hopes. 3. to mold, form, or create: to build boys into men. 4. to base; found: a relationship built on trust. 5. Games . a. to make (words) from letters. b. to assemble (cards) according to number, suit, etc., as in melding. –verb (used without object) 6. to engage in the art, practice, or business of building. 7. to form or construct a plan, system of thought, etc. (usually fol. by on or upon ): He built on the philosophies of the past. 8. to increase or develop toward a maximum, as of intensity, tempo, or magnitude (often fol. by up ): The drama builds steadily toward a climax. –noun 9. the physical structure, esp. of a person; physique; figure: He had a strong build. 10. the manner or form of construction: The house was of modern build. 11. Masonry . a. a vertical joint. b. the vertical dimension of a stone laid on its bed. —Verb phrases 12. build in / into, to build or incorporate as part of something else: to build in bookcases between the windows; an allowance for travel expenses built into the budget. 13. build up, a. to develop or increase: to build up a bank account. b. to strengthen. c. to prepare in stages. d. to fill in with houses; develop into an urban area. e. to praise or flatter. Origin: bef. 1150; ME bilden, OE byldan, deriv. of bold, var. of botl dwelling, house —Related forms build·a·ble, adjective mis·build, verb, -built, -build·ing. outbuild, verb (used with object), -built, -build·ing. pre·build, verb (used with object), -built, -build·ing. su·per·build, verb, -built, -build·ing. un·build·a·ble, adjective un·der·build, verb, -built, -build·ing. —Can be confused:  billed, build . Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To built World English Dictionary built (bɪlt) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — vb the past tense and past participle of build Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History build late O.E. byldan "construct a house," verb form of bold "house," from P.Gmc. *buthlam (cf. O.Fris. bodel "building, house"), from PIE *bhu- "to dwell," from base *bheue- "to be, exist, grow." Rare in O.E.; in M.E. it won out over more common O.E. timbran . Modern spelling is unexplained. built pp. of build. Meaning "physically well-developed" is by 1940s ( well-built in reference to a woman is from 1871); Built-in (adj.) is from 1898. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Idioms & Phrases built see made (built) to order; not built that way; Rome wasn't built in a day. Also see under build. The American Heritage® Dictionary of Idioms by Christine Ammer. Copyright © 1997. Published by Houghton Mifflin. Cite This Source Famous Quotations built "This is the house that Jack built. This is t..." "When you have eaten your fill and have built fine house..." "But will God indeed dwell on the earth? Even heaven and..." "This is the rat That ate the malt That lay in..." "Nor aught availed him now To have built in heav'n ..."

knowledgeable Return to the top

Knowledge is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as (i) expertise, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject; (ii) what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and information; or (iii) awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation. Philosophical debates in general start with Plato's formulation of knowledge as "justified true belief."[citation needed] There is however no single agreed definition of knowledge presently, nor any prospect of one, and there remain numerous competing theories. Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, learning, communication, association and reasoning. The term knowledge is also used to mean the confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use it for a specific purpose if appropriate. See knowledge management for additional details on that discipline. Contents [hide] * 1 Defining knowledge (philosophy) * 2 Communicating knowledge * 3 Situated knowledge * 4 Partial knowledge * 5 Scientific knowledge * 6 Religious meaning of knowledge * 7 See also * 8 Notes * 9 External links [edit] Defining knowledge (philosophy) Robert Reid, Knowledge (1896). Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C. See also: epistemology “ We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing, as opposed to knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when we think that we know the cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that fact and of no other, and, further, that the fact could not be other than it is. Now that scientific knowing is something of this sort is evident — witness both those who falsely claim it and those who actually possess it, since the former merely imagine themselves to be, while the latter are also actually, in the condition described. Consequently the proper object of unqualified scientific knowledge is something which cannot be other than it is. ” — Aristotle, Posterior Analytics (Book 1 Part 2) The definition of knowledge is a matter of on-going debate among philosophers in the field of epistemology. The classical definition, described but not ultimately endorsed by Plato [1], specifies that a statement must meet three criteria in order to be considered knowledge: it must be justified, true, and believed. Some claim that these conditions are not sufficient, as Gettier case examples allegedly demonstrate. There are a number of alternatives proposed, including Robert Nozick's arguments for a requirement that knowledge 'tracks the truth' and Simon Blackburn's additional requirement that we do not want to say that those who meet any of these conditions 'through a defect, flaw, or failure' have knowledge. Richard Kirkham suggests that our definition of knowledge requires that the belief is self-evident to the believer.[2] In contrast to this approach, Wittgenstein observed, following Moore's paradox, that one can say "He believes it, but it isn't so", but not "He knows it, but it isn't so".[3] He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, but rather to distinct ways of talking about conviction. What is different here is not the mental state of the speaker, but the activity in which they are engaged. For example, on this account, to know that the kettle is boiling is not to be in a particular state of mind, but to perform a particular task with the statement that the kettle is boiling. Wittgenstein sought to bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way "knowledge" is used in natural languages. He saw knowledge as a case of a family resemblance. Following this idea, "knowledge" has been reconstructed as a cluster concept that points out relevant features but that is not adequately captured by any definition.[4] [edit] Communicating knowledge Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning and can be thought of as a dynamic process. Hence the transfer of the symbolic representation can be viewed as one ascription process whereby knowledge can be transferred. Other forms of communication include imitation, narrative exchange along with a range of other methods. There is no complete theory of knowledge transfer or communication.[citation needed] While many would agree that one of the most universal and significant tools for the transfer of knowledge is writing (of many kinds), argument over the usefulness of the written word exists however, with some scholars skeptical of its impact on societies. In his collection of essays Technopoly Neil Postman demonstrates the argument against the use of writing through an excerpt from Plato's work Phaedrus (Postman, Neil (1992) Technopoly, Vintage, New York, pp 73). In this excerpt the scholar Socrates recounts the story of Thamus, the Egyptian king and Theuth the inventor of the written word. In this story, Theuth presents his new invention "writing" to King Thamus, telling Thamus that his new invention "will improve both the wisdom and memory of the Egyptians" (Postman, Neil (1992) Technopoly, Vintage, New York, pp 74). King Thamus is skeptical of this new invention and rejects it as a tool of recollection rather than retained knowledge. He argues that the written word will infect the Egyptian people with fake knowledge as they will be able to attain facts and stories from an external source and will no longer be forced to mentally retain large quantities of knowledge themselves (Postman, Neil (1992) Technopoly, Vintage, New York ,pp 74). Andrew Robinson also highlights, in his work The Origins of Writing, the possibility for writing to be used to spread false information and therefore the ability of the written word to decrease social knowledge (Robinson, Andrew (2003) The Origins of Writing in Crowley and Heyer (eds) Communication in History: Technology, Culture, Society, Boston pp 34). People are often internalizing new information which they perceive to be knowledge but in reality fill their minds with false knowledge. [edit] Situated knowledge Situated knowledge is knowledge specific to a particular situation.[5] Some methods of generating knowledge, such as trial and error, or learning from experience, tend to create highly situational knowledge. One of the main benefits of the scientific method is that the theories it generates are much less situational than knowledge gained by other methods.[citation needed] Situational knowledge is often embedded in language, culture, or traditions.[citation needed] Knowledge generated through experience is called knowledge "a posteriori", meaning afterwards. The pure existence of a term like "a posteriori" means this also has a counterpart. In this case that is knowledge "a priori", meaning before. The knowledge prior to any experience means that there are certain "assumptions" that one takes for granted. For example if you are being told about a chair it is clear to you that the chair is in space, that it is 3D. This knowledge is not knowledge that one can "forget", even someone suffering from amnesia experiences the world in 3D. See also: a priori and a posteriori.[citation needed] [edit] Partial knowledge One discipline of epistemology focuses on partial knowledge. In most realistic cases, it is not possible to have an exhaustive understanding of an information domain, so then we have to live with the fact that our knowledge is always not complete, that is, partial. Most real problems have to be solved by taking advantage of a partial understanding of the problem context and problem data. That is very different from the typical simple maths problems one might solve at school, where all data is given and one has a perfect understanding of formulas necessary to solve them.[citation needed] This idea is also present in the concept of bounded rationality which assumes that in real life situations people often have a limited amount of information and make decisions accordingly. [edit] Scientific knowledge The development of the scientific method has made a significant contribution to our understanding of knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.[6] The scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.[7]. Science, and the nature of scientific knowledge have also become the subject of Philosophy. As science itself has developed, knowledge has developed a broader usage which has been developing within biology/psychology—discussed elsewhere as meta-epistemology, or genetic epistemology, and to some extent related to "theory of cognitive development". Sir Francis Bacon, "Knowledge is Power" Note that "epistemology" is the study of knowledge and how it is acquired. Science is “the process used everyday to logically complete thoughts through inference of facts determined by calculated experiments." Sir Francis Bacon, critical in the historical development of the scientific method, his works established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry. His famous aphorism, "knowledge is power", is found in the Meditations Sacrae (1597).[8]. Until recent times, at least in the Western tradition, it was simply taken for granted that knowledge was something possessed only by humans — and probably adult humans at that. Sometimes the notion might stretch to (ii) Society-as-such, as in (e.g.) "the knowledge possessed by the Coptic culture" (as opposed to its individual members), but that was not assured either. Nor was it usual to consider unconscious knowledge in any systematic way until this approach was popularized by Freud. [9] Other biological domains where "knowledge" might be said to reside, include: (iii) the immune system, and (iv) in the DNA of the genetic code. See the list of four "epistemological domains": Popper, (1975)[10]; and Traill (2008 [1]: Table S, page 31)—also references by both to Niels Jerne. Such considerations seem to call for a separate definition of "knowledge" to cover the biological systems. For biologists, knowledge must be usefully available to the system, though that system need not be conscious. Thus the criteria seem to be: * The system should apparently be dynamic and self-organizing (unlike a mere book on its own). * The knowledge must constitute some sort of representation of "the outside world"[11], or ways of dealing with it (directly or indirectly). * There must be some way for the system to access this information quickly enough for it to be useful. Scientific knowledge may not involve a claim to certainty, maintaining skepticism means that a scientist will never be absolutely certain when they are correct and when they are not. It is thus an irony of proper scientific method that one must doubt even when correct, in the hopes that this practice will lead to greater convergence on the truth in general.[12]

industry Return to the top

Industry refers to the production of an economic good (either material or a service) within an economy.[1] Contents [hide] * 1 Industrial sectors * 2 History * 3 Proto-industry * 4 Industrial development * 5 Declining industries * 6 Industrial technology * 7 Society * 8 Industrial labour * 9 War * 10 Environment * 11 ISIC * 12 List of countries by industrial output * 13 See also * 14 References [edit] Industrial sectors Main article: Industrial organization Further information: Industrial loan company Clark's Sector Model (1950) There are four key industrial economic sectors: the primary sector, largely raw material extraction industries such as mining and farming; the secondary sector, involving refining, construction, and manufacturing; the tertiary sector, which deals with services (such as law and medicine) and distribution of manufactured goods; and the quaternary sector, a relatively new type of knowledge industry focusing on technological research, design and development such as computer programming, and biochemistry. A fifth, quinary, sector has been proposed encompassing nonprofit activities. The economy is also broadly separated into public sector and private sector, with industry generally categorized as private. Industries are also any business or manufacturing. Industries can be classified on the basis of raw materials,size and ownership Raw Materials:Industries may be agriculture based,Marine based,Mineral based,Forest based. Size:It refers to the amount of capital invested,number of people employed and the volume of production. Ownership:Industries can be classified into private sector,state owned or public sector,joint sector and co-operative sector Industry in the sense of manufacturing became a key sector of production and labour in European and North American countries during the Industrial Revolution, which upset previous mercantile and feudal economies through many successive rapid advances in technology, such as the steel and coal production. It is aided by technological advances, and has continued to develop into new types and sectors to this day. Industrial countries then assumed a capitalist economic policy. Railroads and steam-powered ships began speedily establishing links with previously unreachable world markets, enabling private companies to develop to then-unheard of size and wealth. Following the Industrial Revolution, perhaps a third of the world's economic output is derived from manufacturing industries&mash;more than agriculture's share. Many developed countries and many developing/semi-developed countries (People's Republic of China, India etc.) depend significantly on industry. Industries, the countries they reside in, and the economies of those countries are interlinked in a complex web of interdependence. Industry is divided into four sectors. They are: Sector Definition Primary This involved the extraction of resources directly from the Earth, this includes farming, mining and logging. They don't process the products at all. Secondary This group is involved in the processing products from primary industries. This includes all factories—those that refine metals, produce furniture, or pack farm products such as meat. Tertiary This group is involved in the provision of services. They include teachers, managers and other service providers. Quatenary This group is involved in the research of science and technology. They include scientists. As a country develops people move away from the primary sector to secondary and then to tertiary. There are many other different kinds of industries, and often organized into different classes or sectors by a variety of industrial classifications. Industry classification systems used by the government commonly divide industry into three sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, and services. The primary sector of industry is agriculture, mining and raw material extraction. The secondary sector of industry is manufacturing. The tertiary sector of industry is service production. Sometimes, one talks about a quaternary sector of industry, consisting of intellectual services such as research and development (R&D). Market-based classification systems such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark are used in finance and market research. These classification systems commonly divide industries according to similar functions and markets and identify businesses producing related products. Industries can also be identified by product: chemical industry, petroleum industry, automotive industry, electronic industry, meatpacking industry, hospitality industry, food industry, fish industry, software industry, paper industry, entertainment industry, semiconductor industry, cultural industry, poverty industry * labor-intensive industry - capital-intensive industry * light industry - heavy industry [edit] History Main article: Industrial history See also: List of countries by industrial production growth rate [edit] Proto-industry Main article: Proto-industrialization Early industries involved manufacturing goods for trade. In medieval Europe, industry became dominated by the guilds in cities and towns, who offered mutual support for the member's interests, and maintained standards of industry workmanship and ethical conduct. [edit] Industrial development Main article: Industrialization See also: Research and development and Protectionism The industrial revolution led to the development of factories for large-scale production, with consequent changes in society. Originally the factories were steam-powered, but later transitioned to electricity once an electrical grid was developed. The mechanized assembly line was introduced to assemble parts in a repeatable fashion, with individual workers performing specific steps during the process. This led to significant increases in efficiency, lowering the cost of the end process. Later automation was increasingly used to replace human operators. This process has accelerated with the development of the computer and the robot. [edit] Declining industries Main article: Deindustrialisation Historically certain manufacturing industries have gone into a decline due to various economic factors, including the development of replacement technology or the loss of competitive advantage. An example of the former is the decline in carriage manufacturing when the automobile was mass-produced. A recent trend has been the migration of prosperous, industrialized nations toward a post-industrial society. This is manifested by an increase in the service sector at the expense of manufacturing, and the development of an information-based economy, the so-called informational revolution. In a post-industrial society, manufacturing is relocated to economically more favourable locations through a process of off-shoring. The major difficulty for people looking to measure manufacturing industries outputs and economic effect is finding a measurement which is stable historically. Traditionally, success has been measured in the number of jobs created. The lowering of employee numbers in the manufacturing sector has been assumed to be caused by a decline in the competitiveness of the sector. The truth however is that it has been caused by the introduction of the lean manufacturing process. Eventually, this will lead to competing product lines being managed by one of two people, as is already the case in the cigarette manufacturing industry. Related to this change is the upgrading of the quality of the produce being manufactured. While it is easy to produce a low tech, low skill product, the ability to manufacture high quality products is limited to companies with a high skilled staff. [edit] Industrial technology Main article: Industrial technology There are several branches of technology and engineering specialised for industrial application. This includes mathematical models, patented inventions and craft skills. See automation, industrial architecture, industrial design, industrial process, industrial arts and industrial applicability. [edit] Society Main article: Industrial society An industrial society can be defined in many ways. Today, industry is an important part of most societies and nations. A government must have some kind of industrial policy, regulating industrial placement, industrial pollution, financing and industrial labor. [edit] Industrial labour Main article: Industrial labour Further information: industrial sociology, industrial and organizational psychology, industrial district, and industrial park In an industrial society, industry employs a major part of the population. This occurs typically in the manufacturing sector. A labor union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages, hours, and working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members (rank and file members) and negotiates labor contracts with employers. This movement first rose among industrial workers. [edit] War Main article: Industrial warfare The industrial revolution changed warfare, with mass-produced weaponry and supplies, machine-powered transportation, mobilization, the total war concept and weapons of mass destruction. Early instances of industrial warfare were the Crimean War and the American Civil War, but its full potential showed during the world wars. See also military-industrial complex, arms industry, military industry and modern warfare. [edit] Environment Further information: Pollution and Industrial ecology [edit] ISIC ISIC (Rev.4) stands for International Standard Industrial Classification of all economic activities, the most complete and systematic industrial classification made by United Nations Statistics Division. ISIC Rev.4 is a standard classification of economic activities arranged so that entities can be classified according to the activity they carry out. The categories of ISIC at the most detailed level (classes) are delineated according to what is, in most countries, the customary combination of activities described in statistical units, and considers the relative importance of the activities included in these classes. While ISIC Rev.4 continues to use criteria such as input, output and use of the products produced, more emphasis has been given to the character of the production process in defining and delineating ISIC classes.

certified Return to the top

Certification refers to the confirmation of certain characteristics of an object, person, or organization. This confirmation is often, but not always, provided by some form of external review, education, or assessment. Contents [hide] * 1 Types * 2 Certification in software testing * 3 Types of certification * 4 See also * 5 External links [edit] Types One of the most common types of certification in modern society is professional certification, where a person is certified as being able to competently complete a job or task, usually by the passing of an examination. There are two general types of professional certification: some are valid for lifetime, once the exam is passed. Others have to be recertified again after a certain period of time. Also, certifications can differ within a profession by the level or specific area of expertise they refer to. For example, in IT Industry there are different certifications available for Software Tester, Project Manager, and Developer. Similarly, the Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology offers three certifications in the same profession, but with increasing complexity. Certification does not refer to the state of legally being able to practice or work in a profession. That is licensure. Usually, licensure is administered by a governmental entity for public protection purposes and certification by a professional association. However, they are similar in that they both require the demonstration of a certain level of knowledge or ability. The other most common type of certification in modern society is product certification. This refers to processes intended to determine if a product meets minimum standards, similar to quality assurance. Organizational certification, such as the Earthcheck environmental and sustainability certification, is usually referred to as accreditation. The differentiation in terms is especially relevant with regards to the National Commission for Certifying Agencies (NCCA), which is a body that accredits certifying organizations. Earthcheck benchmarking and certification complies with the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) Greenhouse Gas Protocol, and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14064 range of standards for greenhouse gas accounting. [edit] Certification in software testing For Software Testing the certifications can be grouped into exam-based and education-based. Exam-based certifications: For this there is the need to pass an exam, which can also be learned by self-study: e.g. for ISTQB Certified Tester or CSTE by QAI or CSQE by American Society for Quality. Education-based certifications are the instructor-led sessions, where each course has to be passed, e.g. CSTP or CSTM by IIST (International Institute for Software Testing). Certified Software Test Manager(CSTM) certification is offered by STQC IT Service Centre, For more details: http://www.stqc.nic.in/ India.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSDG [edit] Types of certification * Professional certification * Culinary Certification * Product certification and certification marks * Cyber security certification * Digital signatures in Public-key cryptography * Music recording sales certification, such as "Gold" or "Platinum" * Film certification, also known as Motion picture rating system * Academic degree

service Return to the top

Customer service is the provision of service to customers before, during and after a purchase. According to Jamier L. Scott. (2002),[1] “Customer service is a series of activities designed to enhance the level of customer satisfaction – that is, the feeling that a product or service has met the customer expectation." Its importance varies by product, industry and customer; defective or broken merchandise can be exchanged, often only with a receipt and within a specified time frame. Retail stores will often have a desk or counter devoted to dealing with returns, exchanges and complaints, or will perform related functions at the point of sale. Customer service may be provided by a person (e.g., sales and service representative), or by automated means called self-service. Examples of self service are Internet sites. However, in the Internet era, a challenge has been to maintain and/or enhance the personal experience while making use of the efficiencies of online commerce. Writing in Fast Company, entrepreneur and customer systems innovator Micah Solomon has made the point that "Online customers are literally invisible to you (and you to them), so it's easy to shortchange them emotionally. But this lack of visual and tactile presence makes it even more crucial to create a sense of personal, human-to-human connection in the online arena."[2] Customer service is normally an integral part of a company’s customer value proposition. In their book Rules to Break and Laws to Follow, Don Peppers and Martha Rogers, Ph.D. write that "customers have memories. They will remember you, whether you remember them or not." Further, "customer trust can be destroyed at once by a major service problem, or it can be undermined one day at a time, with a thousand small demonstrations of incompetence."[3] From the point of view of an overall sales process engineering effort, customer service plays an important role in an organization's ability to generate income and revenue.[4] From that perspective, customer service should be included as part of an overall approach to systematic improvement. Some have argued[5] that the quality and level of customer service has decreased in recent years, and that this can be attributed to a lack of support or understanding at the executive and middle management levels of a corporation and/or a customer service policy. To address this argument, many organizations have employed a variety of methods to improve their customer satisfaction levels, and other KPIs.[citation needed] Contents [hide] * 1 Instant feedback * 2 Standardization * 3 See also * 4 References [edit] Instant feedback Recently, many organizations have implemented feedback loops that allow them to capture feedback at the point of experience. For example, National Express, one of the UK's leading travel companies invites passengers to send text messages whilst riding the bus. This has been shown to be useful as it allows companies to improve their customer service before the customer defects, thus making it far more likely that the customer will return next time.[6] A challenge working with customer service is to ensure that you have focused your attention on the right key areas, measured by the right Key Performance Indicator. There is no challenge to come up with a lot of meaningful KPIs, but the challenge is to select a few which reflects your overall strategy. In addition to reflecting your strategy it should also enable staff to limit their focus to the areas that really matter. The focus must be of those KPIs, which will deliver the most value to the overall objective, e.g. cost saving, service improving etc. It must also be done in such a way that staff sincerely believe that they can make a difference with the effort. One of the most important aspects of a customer service KPI is that of what is often referred to as the "Feel Good Factor". Basically the goal is to not only help the customer have a good experience, but to offer them an experience that exceeds their expectations. Several key points are listed as follows: 1. Know your product – Know what products/service you are offering back to front. In other words be an information expert. It is okay to say "I don't know", but it should always be followed up by... "but let me find out" or possibly " but my friend knows!" Whatever the situation may be, make sure that you don't leave your customer with an unanswered question. 2. Body Language/Communication – Most of the communication that we relay to others is done through body language. If we have a negative body language when we interact with others it can show our lack of care. Two of the most important parts of positive body language are smiling, and eye contact. Make sure to look your customers in the eye. It shows that we are listening to them, not at them. And then of course smiling is just more inviting than someone who has a blank look on their face. 3. Anticipate Guest Needs – Nothing surprises your customer more than an employee going the extra mile to help them. Always look for ways to serve your customer more than they expect. In doing so it helps them to know that you care and it will leave them with the "Feel Good Factor" that we are searching for.

technicians Return to the top

A technician is a worker in a field of technology who is proficient in the relevant skills and techniques, with a relatively practical understanding of the theoretical principles. Experienced technicians in a specific tool domain typically have intermediate understanding of theory and expert proficiency in technique. As such, technicians are generally much better versed in technique compared to average layman and even general professionals in that field of technology. For example, although audio technicians are not as learned in acoustics as acoustical engineers, they are more proficient in operating sound equipment, and they will likely know more about acoustics than other studio personnel such as performers. Technicians may be classified as either skilled workers or semi-skilled workers, and may be part of a larger (production) process. They may be found working in a variety of fields, and they usually have a job title with the designation 'technician' following the particular category of work. Thus a 'stage technician' is a worker who provides technical support for putting on a play, while a 'medical technician' is an employee who provides technical support in the medical industry or to the medical profession. [edit] See also * Engineering technician * Mechanic * Lighting technician * Aircraft Maintenance Technician * Computer repair technician * Dental technician * Theatrical technician * Veterinary technician

top-notch Return to the top

* Top-Notch Comics Top-Notch Comics was the name of an American comic book anthology series published by MLJ Magazines Inc., more commonly known as MLJ ... 11 KB (1,688 words) - 16:40, 28 December 2010 * Dody Dorn She noted further that, "Dody Dorn's editing is top-notch as pic - scripted, acted and lensed with precision - smoothly toggles back and ... 11 KB (1,403 words) - 03:28, 25 October 2010 * Pakistan Ambassador to the United States Therefore, the Pakistani ambassadors to the US were not only the top-notch officers of Pakistan Civil Services , but also political ... 4 KB (575 words) - 06:08, 20 November 2009 * Durwood Merrill Born in Cloud Chief, Oklahoma , Merrill was known for being friendly and outgoing, as well as being a top-notch umpire. He was also a ... 5 KB (644 words) - 13:13, 18 October 2010 * Dave Palmer (American keyboardist) Jazz Reviewer Glenn Astarita considers Palmer a "top-notch acoustic jazz pianist. Palmer is a member of the Denton , Texas and Los Angeles ... 3 KB (299 words) - 03:09, 26 December 2010 * BC Centre of Excellence The programs there are overseen a top-notch staff, including Joanne McLeod , who coaches 3-time Canadian men's national champion Emanuel ... 1 KB (184 words) - 23:23, 29 July 2010 * Philip Loraine "Philip Loraine has published a number of top-notch suspense novels in the United States, and under his real name has written other books ... 3 KB (384 words) - 00:07, 17 October 2010 * Facundo Cabral His songs have been covered by many top-notch Spanish language interpreters such as Alberto Cortez , who is also a friend of his, Juan ... 6 KB (1,088 words) - 17:15, 8 January 2011 * Repeater (G.I. Joe) Repeater had twenty years of top-notch field performance in the Army, although he never did well in the garrison. However, out in the bush ... 2 KB (348 words) - 20:21, 23 April 2010 * Rua Oscar Freire Top-notch Brazilian fashion is present with the likes of Alexandre Herchcovitch , Cris Barros, Reinaldo Lourenço, Glória Coelho, Animale, ... 2 KB (284 words) - 21:39, 19 November 2010 * Bob Manning Living in Sweden from 1983 to 1998, Bob had a number of bands and worked with top-notch Swedish artists such as Ann-Christine Hedmark, ... 2 KB (304 words) - 01:27, 2 December 2010 * Conquest of the New World Considered a leap forward in gaming when it was published in 1996; Interplay had managed to combine top-notch graphics, sound, and ... 5 KB (710 words) - 07:23, 16 December 2010 * Greye La Spina Stories, Ten-Story Book, The Thrill Book, Weird Tales , Modern Marriage, Top-Notch Magazine, All-Story , Photoplay , and many other magazines. ... 3 KB (307 words) - 15:54, 15 January 2011 * Hank Stuever a master class in top-notch journalism. In 2009, Stuever released his second book, Tinsel: A Search for America's Christmas Present. ... 2 KB (257 words) - 03:01, 7 January 2011 * Texas Emerging Technology Fund and attracting more top-notch research talent. As of July 2006, nearly $6 million had been awarded to emerging technology companies. Texas ... 2 KB (267 words) - 21:16, 6 May 2010 * Luminous-Lint and dealers, photography timelines and other photography-related issues Robert Hirsch has referred to it as a "top-notch" photographic site ... 2 KB (265 words) - 14:03, 16 January 2011 * Outdoor Canada Published six times a year, Outdoor Canada has received numerous awards for its top-notch writing, photography and design. In 2005, it was ... 9 KB (1,331 words) - 15:49, 16 April 2010 * Francis T Maloney High School Connecticut Music Educators Association (CMEA) Southern Region Music Festival, where top-notch musicians gather and play songs such as the A+ March. ... 2 KB (199 words) - 01:13, 27 November 2010 * Francis Wheeler Loomis Loomis was challenged in bringing top-notch physics talent to a university in the rural Midwest. When approached by Loomis to join his ... 3 KB (359 words) - 12:42, 19 November 2010 * The Kings of Jazz featuring Kenny Davern Live in Concert 1974 This is some classic dixieland music with top-notch performers of the medium. Track listing : Royal Garden Blues (6:40) Wild Man Blues (3: ... 2 KB (304 words) - 23:59, 11 December 2010

customer Return to the top

A customer (also known as a client, buyer, or purchaser) is usually used to refer to a current or potential buyer or user of the products of an individual or organization, called the supplier, seller, or vendor. This is typically through purchasing or renting goods or services. However, in certain contexts, the term customer also includes by extension any entity that uses or experiences the services of another. A customer may also be a viewer of the product or service that is being sold despite deciding not to buy them. The general distinction between a customer and a client is that a customer purchases products whereas a client purchases services. The word derives from "custom," meaning "habit"; a customer was someone who frequented a particular shop, who made it a habit to purchase goods of the sort the shop sold there rather than elsewhere, and with whom the shopkeeper had to maintain a relationship to keep his or her "custom," meaning expected purchases in the future. The slogans "the customer is king" or "the customer is god" or "the customer is always right" indicate the importance of customers to businesses – although the last expression is sometimes used ironically. However, "customer" also has a more generalized meaning as in customer service and a less commercialized meaning in not-for-profit areas. To avoid unwanted implications in some areas such as government services, community services, and education, the term "customer" is sometimes substituted by words such as "constituent" or "stakeholder". This is done to address concerns that the word "customer" implies a narrowly commercial relationship involving the purchase of products and services. However, some managers in this environment, in which the emphasis is on being helpful to the people one is dealing with rather than on commercial sales, comfortably use the word "customer" to both internal and external customers.

motorcycle Return to the top

mo·tor·cy·cle    /ˈmoʊtərˌsaɪkəl/ Show Spelled [moh-ter-sahy-kuhl] Show IPA noun, verb, -cled, -cling. –noun 1. a motor vehicle similar to a bicycle but usually larger and heavier, chiefly for one rider but sometimes having two saddles or an attached sidecar for passengers. –verb (used without object) 2. to ride on or operate a motorcycle. Use motorcycle in a Sentence See images of motorcycle Search motorcycle on the Web Origin: 1890–95, Americanism ; motor + cycle —Related forms mo·tor·cy·clist  /ˈmoʊtərˌsaɪklɪst/ Show Spelled[moh-ter-sahy-klist] Show IPA, noun Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To motorcycle Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : motorcycle bike, cycle View more related words » Discount Honda Bikes Southern Honda Orlando: new Honda bikes and ATVs waaay under MSRP orlando.southernhonda.com Power and Play Warehouse Scooters ,Motorcycles,Service Open 10am-6pm 6 days a week www.powerandplaywarehouse.com World English Dictionary motorcycle (ˈməʊtəˌsaɪk ə l) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n 1. Also called: motorbike a two-wheeled vehicle, having a stronger frame than a bicycle, that is driven by a petrol engine, usually with a capacity of between 125 cc and 1000 cc — vb 2. to ride on a motorcycle 'motorcyclist — n Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History motorcycle 1896, from motor + -cycle , from bicycle. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Famous Quotations motorcycle "Kicking the heart with pain's big boots running up..." "Quayle was a twink. He got all the way through the sixt..." "I am out of practice at living. You are as brave a..." "Actually being married seemed so crowded with unspoken ..." "Today, only a fool would offer herself as the singular ..."

best prices Return to the top

* Wal-Mart (redirect from Best Price) Mart" in some branches), in Japan as Seiyu , and in India as Best Price . ... Walmart customers give low prices as the most important reason ... 90 KB (12,953 words) - 01:05, 13 January 2011 * Chad Price Chad Price is best known for being the lead singer for the pop-punk band All and alt-country band Drag the River . He joined ALL in 1993 ... 2 KB (288 words) - 15:53, 8 January 2011 * Philip Price Philip Price is best known for computer game designs and creative programming done using the Atari 8-bit family of home computers, and ... 5 KB (785 words) - 13:11, 10 January 2011 * Mid price In financial markets , the mid price is the price between the best price of the sellers of the stock or commodity offer price or ask price ... 715 B (111 words) - 17:28, 28 December 2010 * Gerald Putnam ArcaEx was built to instantly look at the Arca exchange for best prices and if not matched then to route to the bourse that displayed the ... 3 KB (493 words) - 13:21, 10 January 2011 * Revlon, Inc. v. MacAndrews & Forbes Holdings, Inc. of the corporate bastion to auctioneers charged with getting the best price for the stockholders at a sale of the company) Accordingly, the ... 24 KB (3,715 words) - 01:18, 13 January 2011 * Sterling Price Sterling Price (September 20, 1809 September 29, 1867) was a lawyer , planter , and ... Price is best known for his victories in New Mexico ... 28 KB (3,842 words) - 17:50, 10 January 2011 * Michael Price (writer) Michael Price is an American writer and producer, best known for his work on The Simpsons . Other television shows he has written for ... 3 KB (317 words) - 13:10, 10 January 2011 * Antony Price Antony Price is a London fashion designer who is best known for glamorous evening wear and suits, and for the seventies icon of the cap ... 7 KB (1,098 words) - 13:09, 10 January 2011 * Keli Price Keli Price (born June 30, 1990) is an American actor , musician , and model Price is best known for his starring role as Chris Abeley in ... 8 KB (1,030 words) - 07:02, 9 October 2010 * Phil Price Phil Price (born 1965) is a New Zealand sculptor. Phil Price is best known for his large scale wind-activated kinetic sculpture . ... 1 KB (139 words) - 17:49, 24 September 2010 * Blanket order multiple delivery dates scheduled over a period of time, sometimes at predetermined prices. ... suppliers to give the best price for price competition. ... 3 KB (552 words) - 18:23, 31 August 2010 * Lindsay Price Lindsay Jaylyn Price (born December 6, 1976) is an American television actress, best known for her roles as Janet Sosna on Beverly Hills, ... 8 KB (957 words) - 06:32, 1 January 2011 * Fred Heineman and ran for Congress as a Republican against incumbent Democrat David Price , narrowly besting Price in the "Republican Revolution " of 1994. ... 4 KB (431 words) - 21:44, 29 July 2010 * Ben Price Ben Price (born 1 January 1972, Birmingham) is a British actor , best known for playing the third incarnation of Nick Tilsley in the ITV ... 6 KB (766 words) - 19:38, 15 December 2010 * Momondo Momondo does not sell tickets; instead it shows the consumer where to buy at the best prices and links to the supplier. It is free of ... 8 KB (1,125 words) - 10:54, 6 January 2011 * Immix Its stated goal is to "provide the most minutes, best prices, and the best coverage around". They claim to be "without the corporate ... 3 KB (449 words) - 06:50, 5 July 2010 * Comparethemarket.com The site aims to help consumers compare the market to find the best price and deals for them on a range of insurance products. ... 3 KB (369 words) - 08:54, 14 December 2010 * Auction algorithm An auction algorithm has been used in a business setting to determine the best prices on a set of products offered to multiple buyers. ... 6 KB (847 words) - 13:40, 1 June 2010 * Thomas Spencer (Marks and Spencer) Spencer had developed some important contacts while working for Isaac Dewhirst and these allowed him to get the best prices for goods by ... 2 KB (335 words) - 05:09, 15 November 2010

diagnosis Return to the top

Diagnosis (from ancient Greek διάγνωσις = discernment) is the identification of the nature and cause of anything. Diagnosis is used in many different disciplines with variations in the use of logics, analytics, and experience to determine the cause and effect relationships. In systems engineering and computer science, diagnosis is typically used to determine the causes of symptoms, mitigations for problems, and solutions to issues.[1][2]

recognition Return to the top

Recognition is identification of something already known or acknowledgement of something as valid. The term and similar may have the following specialized meanings. * Diplomatic recognition, acceptance of the sovereign status of a political entity by other sovereign governments * Intra-species recognition * Molecular recognition * Recognition (international law) * Recognition (parliamentary procedure), the assignment of the floor * Recognition (sociology), an acknowledgement of merits * Recognition (tax), an income tax concept * Revenue recognition [edit] Fiction * The Recognition, a short science fiction story [edit] Technologies * Aircraft recognition * Automatic number plate recognition * Facial recognition (disambiguation) * Gesture recognition * Handwriting recognition * Iris recognition * Language recognition (disambiguation) * Magnetic ink character recognition * Named entity recognition * Optical character recognition * Optical mark recognition * Pattern recognition * Recognition of human individuals * Speech recognition o Audio-visual speech recognition o Speaker recognition o Subvocal speech recognition [edit] Music * Wreckonize, a USA musician

commitment Return to the top

Commitment means to show loyalty, duty or pledge to something or someone, and can refer to: * Personal commitment, interaction dominated by obligations. These obligations may be mutual, or self-imposed, or explicitly stated, or may not. Distinction is often made between commitment as a member of an organization (such as a sporting team, a religion, or as an employee), and a personal commitment, which is often a pledge or promise to ones' self for personal growth. * A contract, which is a legally binding exchange of promises. * Brand commitment refers to the strength of the relationship between consumers (or customers) and a particular brand (or service). * Involuntary commitment, the practice of using legal means or forms to commit a person to a mental hospital, insane asylum or psychiatric ward against the will or over the protests of that person. * Ontological commitment, belief in an ontology in philosophy. * Cell commitment, the molecular event that leads to cellular differentiation. * Organizational commitment can mean something pledged by an organization as opposed to its members. * Commitment (computer science) - the concept of commitment is studied in several branches of computer science around the notion of something pledged. * Physical commitment is information pledged about physical systems (that are situated at a particular place and time). * Social commitment, in PIG a multi-agent system a directed obligation from one agent to another to perform certain actions so as to bring about a certain state of affairs. * Commitment scheme, in cryptography * Commit (data management), to make changes permanent in data management. For example, COMMIT is a statement in SQL. The opposite is to rollback (data management). * Kingsbury Commitment, the beginning of AT&T's monopoly in the telephone industry * Climate commitment, a model of climate change. * LBC Commitment, the second major-label album from the band Lucky Boys Confusion * Commitment (Guang Liang album), or 約定, an album by a Malaysian Taiwanese singer Guang Liang. * "Commitment," a song by LeAnn Rimes on her album entitled Sittin' on Top of the World. * In poker, it means that someone will do better by staying in a hand no matter what (even if he probably doesn't have the best hand, he would still win more money by betting all his chips), rather than folding [edit] External Links * Free Relationship Advice - Commitment [edit] See also * Committed (disambiguation) * Commit charge * Commitment contract * The Commitments (disambiguation)

respect Return to the top

Respect denotes both a positive feeling of esteem for a person of other entity (such as a nation or a religion), and also specific actions and conduct representative of that esteem. Respect can be a specific feeling of regard for the actual qualities of the one respected (e.g., "I have great respect for her judgment"). It can also be conduct in accord with a specific ethic of respect. Rude conduct is usually considered to indicate a lack of respect, disrespect, where as actions that honor somebody or something indicate respect. Specific ethics of respect are of fundamental importance to various cultures. Respect for tradition and legitimate authority is identified by Jonathan Haidt as one of five fundamental moral values shared to a greater or lesser degree by different societies and individuals.[1] Respect should not be confused with tolerance, since tolerance doesn't necessarily imply any positive feeling, and is incompatible with contempt, which is the opposite of respect. Contents [hide] * 1 Kinds of Respect o 1.1 Respect for Superiors o 1.2 Respect for Parents and the Elderly o 1.3 Respect for National Societies o 1.4 Respect in Religion o 1.5 Respect for Other Cultures o 1.6 Respect in the Medical Field * 2 Signs of Respect o 2.1 Language * 3 References * 4 External links [edit] Kinds of Respect [edit] Respect for Superiors Respect, and outward signs of respect, are used in hierarchical organizations to reinforce values of obedience and submission. Military organizations maintain discipline by requiring respect from members. For example, in the United States armed forces, conspicuous contempt toward officials is a punishable offense. The system of military rank relies on subordinates respecting their superiors. Respect for and loyalty to one's lord is an important part of the ethics of Chivalry and Bushido. Organized crime syndicates such as the Mafia and the Yakuza also rely on an ethic of respect for superiors. [edit] Respect for Parents and the Elderly In many societies, people are expected to be respectful of their parents and other elders. In Confucianism, filial piety is the virtue of showing respect to ones' parents and ancestors. In most societies, this kind of respect towards people who are older is expressed through a certain form of language different from the one used when addressing peers. [edit] Respect for National Societies Most societies expect members to be patriotic, showing respect to the nation as a whole. This respect is sometimes extended to concrete symbols of the nation, such as flags. Respect for the Indian, Pakistani and other countrys' flags is shown by adhering to a list of rules as to its display: it must not be flown in the dark, it must not be allowed to become ragged, and so on. [edit] Respect in Religion Many religions require specific gestures of respect towards religious figures and religious artifacts. Examples include genuflection towards bishops or consecrated hosts in the Catholic church, and zemnoy poklon in the Eastern Orthodox church. [edit] Respect for Other Cultures Intercultural competence is an ethic of respecting many different cultures, usually in accordance with each culture's specific notions of respect. [edit] Respect in the Medical Field Is the acceptance of an individual as is, in a nonjudgmental manner... a integral component of the nurse-client relationship. Means caring for the clients whose value system may differ greatly from that of the nurse. To show respect, the nurse must not react with shock, surprise, or disapproval toward a client's lifestyle, dress, or behaviors. The nurse respects the client's choices and actions yet sets limits on unhealthy or undesirable behavior.[2] [edit] Signs of Respect [edit] Language Respect is shown in many languages by following specific grammatical conventions, especially in referring to individuals. An honorific is a word or expression (often a pronoun) that conveys respect when used in addressing or referring to a person. Typically honorifics are used for second and third persons; use for first person is less common. Some languages have anti-honorific or despective first person forms (meaning something like "your most humble servant" or "this unworthy person") whose effect is to enhance the relative honor accorded a second or third person. A Style (manner of address) is a legal, official, or recognized title which by tradition or law precedes a reference to a person who holds a post, or which is used to refer to the political office itself. Styles are particularly associated with monarchies, where they may be used by a wife of an office holder or of a prince of the blood, for the duration of their marriage. They are also almost universally used for presidents in republics and in many countries for members of legislative bodies, higher-ranking judges and senior constitutional office holders. Leading religious figures also have styles. Honorific speech is a more general term encompassing any special grammatical rules that indicate more respect on the part of the speaker. For example, in Japanese, all verbs are conjugated differently in the honorific mode, even when they are not directly related to a figure of respect.

support Return to the top

sup·port    /səˈpɔrt, -ˈpoʊrt/ Show Spelled[suh-pawrt, -pohrt] Show IPA –verb (used with object) 1. to bear or hold up (a load, mass, structure, part, etc.); serve as a foundation for. 2. to sustain or withstand (weight, pressure, strain, etc.) without giving way; serve as a prop for. 3. to undergo or endure, esp. with patience or submission; tolerate. 4. to sustain (a person, the mind, spirits, courage, etc.) under trial or affliction: They supported him throughout his ordeal. 5. to maintain (a person, family, establishment, institution, etc.) by supplying with things necessary to existence; provide for: to support a family. 6. to uphold (a person, cause, policy, etc.) by aid, countenance, one's vote, etc.; back; second. 7. to maintain or advocate (a theory, principle, etc.). 8. to corroborate (a statement, opinion, etc.): Leading doctors supported his testimony. 9. to act with or second (a lead performer); assist in performance: The star was supported by a talented newcomer. –noun 10. the act or an instance of supporting. 11. the state of being supported. 12. something that serves as a foundation, prop, brace, or stay. 13. maintenance, as of a person or family, with necessaries, means, or funds: to pay for support of an orphan. 14. a person or thing that supports, as financially: The pension was his only support. 15. a person or thing that gives aid or assistance. 16. an actor, actress, or group performing with a lead performer. 17. the material, as canvas or wood, on which a picture is painted. 18. Stock Exchange . support level. –adjective 19. (of hosiery) made with elasticized fibers so as to fit snugly on the legs, thereby aiding circulation, relieving fatigue, etc. Use support in a Sentence See images of support Search support on the Web Origin: 1350–1400; (v.) ME supporten < MF supporter < ML supportāre to endure (L: to convey), equiv. to sup- sup- + portāre to carry ( see port5 ); (n.) ME, deriv. of the v. —Related forms sup·port·ing·ly, adverb non·sup·port·ing, adjective pre·sup·port, noun, verb (used with object) pro·sup·port, adjective qua·si-sup·port·ed, adjective un·der·sup·port, noun un·sup·port·ed, adjective un·sup·port·ed·ly, adverb un·sup·port·ing, adjective well-sup·port·ed, adjective —Synonyms 1, 6. Support, maintain, sustain, uphold all mean to hold up and to preserve. To support is to hold up or add strength to, literally or figuratively: The columns support the roof. To maintain is to support so as to preserve intact: to maintain an attitude of defiance. To sustain, a rather elevated word, suggests completeness and adequacy in supporting: The court sustained his claim. Uphold applies esp. to supporting or backing another, as in a statement, opinion, or belief: to uphold the rights of a minority. 3. suffer, bear, stand, stomach. 13. sustenance, subsistence, keep. See living. Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : support back up, back, endorse, indorse, plump for View more related words » Surgery by Dr. de la Cruz Univ. of Miami weight loss surgeon performs many bariatric procedures www.uhealthbariatrics.com Orion Liberates Advisors Complete portfolio management built by advisors for advisors. Sponsored Results www.OrionAdvisor.com support level   –noun Stock Exchange . a minimum price below which a specific stock is not supposed to fall, as because of the stock's inherent worth. Also called support, support area, support zone . Compare resistance level. Origin: 1950–55 Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To support World English Dictionary support (səˈpɔːt) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — vb 1. to carry the weight of 2. to bear or withstand (pressure, weight, etc) 3. to provide the necessities of life for (a family, person, etc) 4. to tend to establish (a theory, statement, etc) by providing new facts; substantiate 5. to speak in favour of (a motion) 6. to give aid or courage to 7. to give approval to (a cause, principle, etc); subscribe to: to support a political candidature 8. to endure with forbearance: I will no longer support bad behaviour 9. to give strength to; maintain: to support a business 10. ( tr ) (in a concert) to perform earlier than (the main attraction) 11. films, theatre a. to play a subordinate role to b. to accompany (the feature) in a film programme 12. to act or perform (a role or character) — n 13. the act of supporting or the condition of being supported 14. a thing that bears the weight or part of the weight of a construction 15. a person who or thing that furnishes aid 16. the means of maintenance of a family, person, etc 17. a band or entertainer not topping the bill 18. the support an actor or group of actors playing subordinate roles 19. med an appliance worn to ease the strain on an injured bodily structure or part 20. the solid material on which a painting is executed, such as canvas 21. See athletic support [C14: from Old French supporter, from Latin supportāre to bring, from sub- up + portāre to carry] sup'portless — adj Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History support late 14c., from O.Fr. supporter , from L. supportare "convey, carry, bring up," from sub "up from under" + portare "to carry" (see port (1)). Related: Supported ; supporting . The noun meaning "act of assistance, backing" is recorded from late 14c.; sense of "that which supports" is from 1560s. Meaning "services which enable something to fulfil its function and remain in operation" (e.g. tech support ) is from 1953. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Medical Dictionary 1 sup·port definition Pronunciation: /sə-ˈpō(ə)rt, -ˈpȯ(ə)rt/ Function: vt 1 : to hold up or serve as a foundation or prop for 2 : to maintain in condition, action, or existence < support respiration>< support life> 2 support definition Function: n 1 : the act or process of supporting : the condition of being supported support > 2 : SUPPORTER Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary, © 2007 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source support sup·port (sə-pôrt') v. sup·port·ed , sup·port·ing , sup·ports 1. To bear the weight of, especially from below. 2. To hold in position so as to keep from falling, sinking, or slipping. 3. To be capable of bearing; withstand. 4. To keep from weakening or failing; strengthen. 5. To provide for or maintain, by supplying with money or necessities. 6. To endure; tolerate. n. 1. The act of supporting. 2. The state of being supported. 3. One that supports or maintains. 4. Maintenance, as of a family, with the necessities of life. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. Cite This Source Legal Dictionary Main Entry: sup·port Function: transitive verb 1 a : to promote the interests or cause of b : to uphold or defend as valid or right c : to argue or vote for 2 : to provide with substantiation or corroboration < support an alibi> 3 : to provide with the means of livelihood (as housing, food, or clothing) esp. in accordance with an agreement or court order 4 : to hold up or in position : maintain the physical integrity of support ed by the underlying land> Main Entry: support Function: noun 1 : the act or process of supporting : the condition of being supported support > 2 : a means of obtaining the necessities of life (as food, shelter, and clothing) : a source of livelihood esp. in the form of alimony or child support 3 : something that provides support Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Law, © 1996 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source Computing Dictionary support definition After-sale handholding; something many software vendors promise but few deliver. To hackers, most support people are useless - because by the time a hacker calls support he or she will usually know the software and the relevant manuals better than the support people (sadly, this is *not* a joke or exaggeration). A hacker's idea of "support" is a tête-à-tête or exchange of electronic mail with the software's designer. [ Jargon File] (1995-02-15) The Free On-line Dictionary of Computing, © Denis Howe 2010 http://foldoc.org Cite This Source Famous Quotations support "We reiterate the values [of the family support movement..." "Support the sick, but not the idle." "There is no reason why parents who work hard at a job t..." "That is no use at all. What I want is men who will supp..." "How can one beam alone support a house?"

first Return to the top

first    /fɜrst/ Show Spelled[furst] Show IPA –adjective 1. being before all others with respect to time, order, rank, importance, etc., used as the ordinal number of one: the first edition; the first vice president. 2. Music . highest or chief among several voices or instruments of the same class: first alto; first horn. 3. Automotive . low ( def. 31 ) . 4. ( often initial capital letter ) being a member of the household or an intimate acquaintance of the president of the U.S. or of the governor of a state: the First Lady; Checkers, the first dog. –adverb 5. before all others or anything else in time, order, rank, etc. 6. before some other thing, event, etc.: If you're going, phone first. 7. for the first time: She first visited Atlanta in 1980. 8. in preference to something else; rather; sooner: I'd die first. 9. in the first place; firstly. –noun 10. the person or thing that is first in time, order, rank, etc. 11. the beginning. 12. the first part; first member of a series. 13. Music . a. the voice or instrument that takes the highest or chief part in its class, esp. in an orchestra or chorus. b. a leader of a part or group of performers. 14. Automotive . low gear; first gear: She shifted into first and drove off. 15. the winning position or rank in a race or other competition. 16. Baseball . first base. 17. Usually, firsts. Commerce . a. a product or goods of the first or highest quality. b. goods produced according to specifications, without visible flaws. Compare second1 ( def. 23 ) , third ( def. 12 ) . 18. British University . a. first-class honors. Compare class ( def. 18 ) . b. a person who has won such honors. —Idioms 19. first and last, everything considered; above all else; altogether: First and last, it is important to know oneself. 20. first off, Informal . at the outset; immediately: He wanted to know first off why he hadn't been notified. 21. first thing, before anything else; at once; promptly: I'll call you first thing when I arrive. Use first in a Sentence See images of first Search first on the Web Origin: bef. 1000; ME; OE fyr ( e ) st ( see fore1 , -est); c. G Fürst prince —Related forms firstness, adjective Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To first Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : first first of all, first off, firstly, foremost, number one View more related words » Win Without a Lawyer Step-by-step tutorials show how. Legal self-help that works! www.Jurisdictionary.com Fort Lauderdale Coupons 1 ridiculously huge coupon a day. Like doing Lauderdale at 90% off! Sponsored Results www.Groupon.com/Fort-Lauderdale World English Dictionary first (fɜːst) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — adj 1. a. coming before all others; earliest, best, or foremost b. ( as noun ): I was the first to arrive 2. preceding all others in numbering or counting order; the ordinal number of one . Often written: 1st 3. rated, graded, or ranked above all other levels 4. denoting the lowest forward ratio of a gearbox in a motor vehicle 5. music a. denoting the highest part assigned to one of the voice parts in a chorus or one of the sections of an orchestra: first soprano ; the first violins b. denoting the principal player in a specific orchestral section: he plays first horn 6. first thing as the first action of the day: I'll see you first thing tomorrow 7. first things first things must be done in order of priority 8. ( in negative constructions ) the first thing even one thing: he doesn't know the first thing about me — n 9. the beginning; outset: I knew you were a rogue from the first ; I couldn't see at first because of the mist 10. chiefly ( Brit ) education Full term: first-class honours degree an honours degree of the highest class 11. something which has not occurred before: a first for the company 12. the lowest forward ratio of a gearbox in a motor vehicle; low gear 13. music a. the highest part in a particular section of a chorus or orchestra b. the instrument or voice taking such a part c. the chief or leading player in a section of an orchestra; principal 14. music a rare word for prime — adv 15. before anything else in order, time, preference, importance, etc: do this first ; first, remove the head and tail of the fish 16. first and last on the whole; overall 17. from first to last throughout 18. for the first time: I've loved you since I first saw you 19. ( sentence modifier ) in the first place or beginning of a series of actions: first I want to talk about criminality [Old English fyrest ; related to Old Saxon furist , Old Norse fyrstr , German Fürst prince, one who is first in rank] Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History first O.E. fyrst "foremost," superlative of fore; from P.Gmc. *furisto (cf. O.H.G. furist , O.N. fyrstr , Dan. første , O.Fris. fersta , M.Du. vorste "first," Ger. Fürst "prince"), superlative of *fur-/*for- , from PIE *pro- (cf. Skt. pura "before, formerly;" see pro-). First-class (1858) "is from the universities via the railways" [Weekley]; first-rate (1660s) is from classes of warships in the British navy. First aid is that given at the scene, pending the arrival of a doctor; firsthand (also first-hand , first hand ) is attested from 1690s. First Lady as an informal title for the wife of a U.S. president was in use by 1908, short for First lady of the land . Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Medical Dictionary first (fûrst) adj. 1. Coming before all others in order or location. 2. Occurring or acting before all others in time; earliest. 3. Being the innermost digit, especially on a foot. first n. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. Cite This Source Abbreviations & Acronyms FIRST Foundation for Ichthyosis and Related Skin Types The American Heritage® Abbreviations Dictionary, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Cite This Source Idioms & Phrases first In addition to the idioms beginning with first, also see at first; at first blush; at first hand; cast the first stone; get to first base; if at first you don't succeed; in the first place; in the (first) flush of; love at first sight; not know beans (the first thing); of the first water; on a first-name basis.

riding Return to the top

rid·ing 1    /ˈraɪdɪŋ/ Show Spelled[rahy-ding] Show IPA –noun 1. the act of a person or thing that rides. –adjective 2. used in traveling or in riding: riding clothes. Use riding in a Sentence See images of riding Search riding on the Web Origin: bef. 1000; ME (n., adj.); OE rīdende (adj.). See ride, -ing1 , -ing2 Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : riding equitation, horseback riding, awheel View more related words » English Riding Tack Read Customer Reviews On Equine Tack Accessories At SmartPak. www.SmartPakEquine.com Co-Ed Teen Riding Camp Horseback Riding Camp in PA Private Lessons & Trail Rides Sponsored Results www.sma-summers.com ri·ding 2    /ˈraɪdɪŋ/ Show Spelled[rahy-ding] Show IPA –noun 1. any of the three administrative divisions into which Yorkshire, England, is divided, namely, North Riding, East Riding, and West Riding. 2. any similar administrative division elsewhere. Origin: 1250–1300; ME triding, OE *thriding < ON thridjungr third part; t- (of ME), var. of th- (of OE), lost by assimilation to -t in east, west, which commonly preceded Ri·ding    /ˈraɪdɪŋ/ Show Spelled[rahy-ding] Show IPA –noun Laura, 1901–91, U.S. poet, novelist, and critic. ride    /raɪd/ Show Spelled [rahyd] Show IPA verb, rode or ( Archaic ) rid; rid·den or ( Archaic ) rid; rid·ing; noun –verb (used without object) 1. to sit on and manage a horse or other animal in motion; be carried on the back of an animal. 2. to be borne along on or in a vehicle or other kind of conveyance. 3. to move or float on the water: the surfboarders riding on the crests of the waves. 4. to move along in any way; be carried or supported: He is riding along on his friend's success. Distress is riding among the people. 5. to have a specified character for riding purposes: The car rides smoothly. 6. to be conditioned; depend (usually fol. by on ): All his hopes are riding on getting that promotion. 7. Informal . to continue without interruption or interference: He decided to let the bet ride. 8. to be carried on something, as a litter, a person's shoulders, or the like. 9. to work or move up from the proper place or position (usually fol. by up ): Her skirt rode up above her knees. 10. to extend or project over something, as the edge of one thing over the edge of another thing. 11. to turn or rest on something: the great globe of the world riding on its axis. 12. to appear to float in space, as a heavenly body: A blood-red moon rode in the cloudless sky. 13. to lie at anchor, as a ship. –verb (used with object) 14. to sit on and manage (a horse, bicycle, etc.) so as to be carried along. 15. to sit or move along on (something); be carried or borne along on: The ship rode the waves. We ride a bus. 16. to ride over, along, or through (a road, boundary, region, etc.); traverse. 17. to ridicule or harass persistently: The boys keep riding him about his poor grades. 18. to control, dominate, or tyrannize over: a man ridden by fear; a country that is ridden by a power-mad dictator. 19. to cause to ride. 20. to carry (a person) on something as if on a horse: He rode the child about on his back. 21. to execute by riding: to ride a race. 22. to rest on, esp. by overlapping. 23. to keep (a vessel) at anchor or moored. 24. Jazz . to play improvisations on (a melody). –noun 25. a journey or excursion on a horse, camel, etc., or on or in a vehicle. 26. a means of or arrangement for transportation by motor vehicle: We'll handle rides to be sure everyone gets home quickly. 27. the vehicle used for transportation: I've got to hang up now—my ride's here. 28. a vehicle or device, as a Ferris wheel, roller coaster, or merry-go-round, on which people ride for amusement. 29. a way, road, etc., made esp. for riding. —Verb phrase 30. ride out, a. to sustain (a gale, storm, etc.) without damage, as while riding at anchor. b. to sustain or endure successfully. —Idioms 31. ride down, a. to trample or overturn by riding upon or against. b. to ride up to; overtake; capture: The posse rode down the escaping bank robber. c. Nautical . to bear down upon (a rope of a tackle) with all one's weight. 32. ride for a fall, to conduct oneself so as to invite misfortune or injury. 33. ride herd on. herd1 ( def. 6 ) . 34. ride shotgun. shotgun ( def. 9 ) . 35. ride the beam, Aeronautics . to fly along the course indicated by a radio beam. 36. take for a ride, Slang . a. to murder, esp. by abducting the victim for that purpose. b. to deceive; trick: It was obvious to everyone but me that I was being taken for a ride. Origin: bef. 900; 1915–20 for def. 17; ME riden (v.), OE rīdan; c. OFris rīda, G reiten, ON rītha; akin to OIr ríad journey ( cf. palfrey, rheda). See road —Synonyms 2. See drive. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To riding World English Dictionary riding 1 (ˈraɪdɪŋ) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n a. the art or practice of horsemanship b. ( as modifier ): a riding school ; riding techniques riding 2 (ˈraɪdɪŋ) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n 1. ( capital when part of a name ) any of the three former administrative divisions of Yorkshire: North Riding, East Riding and West Riding 2. (in Canada) a parliamentary constituency 3. (in New Zealand) a rural electorate for local government [from Old English thriding , from Old Norse thrithjungr a third. The th- was lost by assimilation to the -t or -th that preceded it, as in west thriding , etc] Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History ride O.E. ridan "ride" (as on horseback), "move forward, rock" (class I strong verb; past tense rad , pp. riden ), from P.Gmc. *ridanan (cf. O.N. riða, O.Fris. rida, M.Du. riden, Ger. reiten ), from PIE *reidh- "to ride" (cf. O.Ir. riadaim "I travel," O.Gaul. reda "chariot"). Meaning "heckle" is from 1912; that of "have sex with (a woman)" is from 1250; that of "dominate cruelly" is from 1583. The noun is first recorded 1759; slang meaning "a motor vehicle" is recorded from 1930; sense of "amusement park device" is from 1934. To ride out "endure (a storm, etc.) without great damage" is from 1529. To ride shotgun is 1963, from Old West stagecoach custom in the movies. To ride shank's mare "walk" is from 1846. To take (someone) for a ride "tease, mislead, cheat," is first attested 1925, Amer.Eng., possibly from underworld sense of "take on a car trip with intent to kill" (1927). Phrase go along for the ride "join in passively" is from 1960. A ride cymbal (1956) is used by jazz drummers for keeping up continuous rhythm, as opposed to a crash cymbal ( ride as "rhythm" in jazz slang is recorded from 1936). riding one of the three districts into which Yorkshire was divided, 1295, from late O.E. *þriðing, a relic of Viking rule, from O.N. ðriðjungr "third part," from ðriði "third" (see third). The initial consonant merged with final consonant of preceding north, west , or east . Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Slang Dictionary ride definition 1. n. a car. : Do you care if I leave my ride parked in your driveway? Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions by Richard A. Spears.Fourth Edition. Copyright 2007. Published by McGraw Hill. Cite This Source Famous Quotations ride definition "Sometimes a musical phrase would perfectly sum up ..." "All in green went my love riding" "With its frame of shaking curls all in disarray, e..." "Riding out from this town, to another, where ..." "Strong Men, riding horses. In the West On a range ..." More Quotes

strive Return to the top

strive    /straɪv/ Show Spelled[strahyv] Show IPA –verb (used without object), strove or strived, striv·en  /ˈstrɪvən/ Show Spelled[striv-uhn] Show IPA or strived, striv·ing. 1. to exert oneself vigorously; try hard: He strove to make himself understood. 2. to make strenuous efforts toward any goal: to strive for success. 3. to contend in opposition, battle, or any conflict; compete. 4. to struggle vigorously, as in opposition or resistance: to strive against fate. 5. to rival; vie. Use strive in a Sentence See images of strive Search strive on the Web Origin: 1175–1225; ME striven < OF estriver to quarrel, compete, strive < Gmc; cf. obs. D strijven, G streben to strive —Related forms striver, noun striv·ing·ly, adverb in·ter·strive, verb (used without object), -strove, -striv·en, -striv·ing. outstrive, verb (used with object), -strove, -striv·en, -striv·ing. o·ver·strive, verb (used without object), -strove, -striv·en, -striv·ing. re·strive, verb (used without object), -strove, -striv·en, -striv·ing. un·striv·ing, adjective —Synonyms 1. See try. 2. toil. 3. struggle, fight. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To strive Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : strive endeavor, endeavour, reach, strain View more related words » Criminal Law Info Learn Criminal Law Basics For Free. FindLaw - A Trusted Legal Resource. www.FindLaw.com Definition of Depression Learn The Clinical Definition of Depression From Our Experts Now! Sponsored Results Topicologist.com World English Dictionary strive (straɪv) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — vb , strives , striving , strove , striven 1. ( may take a clause as object or an infinitive ) to make a great and tenacious effort: to strive to get promotion 2. ( intr ) to fight; contend [C13: from Old French estriver, of Germanic origin; related to Middle High German streben to strive, Old Norse strītha to fight] 'striver — n Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History strive c.1200, from O.Fr. estriver "to quarrel, dispute," from estrif, estrit "quarrel" (see strife). It became a strong verb (past tense strove ) by rhyming association with drive , etc. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Famous Quotations strive "Those with stomach still to copulate strive in vain." "God always strives together with those who strive." "Immortal glories in my mind revive, And in my soul..." "But strive first for the kingdom of God and his righteo..." "Strive to enter through the narrow door; for many, I te..."

offer Return to the top

of·fer    /ˈɔfər, ˈɒfər/ Show Spelled[aw-fer, of-er] Show IPA –verb (used with object) 1. to present for acceptance or rejection; proffer: He offered me a cigarette. 2. to propose or put forward for consideration: to offer a suggestion. 3. to propose or volunteer (to do something): She offered to accompany me. 4. to make a show of intention (to do something): We did not offer to go first. 5. to give, make, or promise: She offered no response. 6. to present solemnly as an act of worship or devotion, as to god, a deity or a saint; sacrifice. 7. to present for sale: He offered the painting to me at a reduced price. 8. to tender or bid as a price: to offer ten dollars for a radio. 9. to attempt or threaten to do, engage in, or inflict: to offer battle. 10. to put forth; exert: to offer resistance. 11. to present to sight or notice. 12. to introduce or present for exhibition or performance. 13. to render (homage, thanks, etc.). 14. to present or volunteer (oneself) to someone as a spouse. –verb (used without object) 15. to present itself; occur: Whenever an opportunity offered, he slipped off to town. 16. to present something as an act of worship or devotion; sacrifice. 17. to make a proposal or suggestion. 18. to suggest oneself to someone for marriage; propose. 19. Archaic . to make an attempt (fol. by at ). –noun 20. an act or instance of offering: an offer of help. 21. the condition of being offered: an offer for sale. 22. something offered. 23. a proposal or bid to give or pay something as the price of something else; bid: an offer of $90,000 for the house. 24. Law . a proposal that requires only acceptance in order to create a contract. 25. an attempt or endeavor. 26. a show of intention. 27. a proposal of marriage. Use offer in a Sentence See images of offer Search offer on the Web Origin: bef. 900; ME offren, OE offrian to present in worship < L offerre, equiv. to of- of- + ferre to bring, bear1 —Related forms of·fer·a·ble, adjective of·fer·er, of·fer·or, noun non·of·fer, noun pre·of·fer, noun, verb (used with object) re·of·fer, verb, noun self-offered, adjective un·of·fered, adjective —Synonyms 1. Offer, proffer, tender mean to present for acceptance or refusal. Offer is a common word in general use for presenting something to be accepted or rejected: to offer assistance. Proffer, with the same meaning, is now chiefly a literary word: to proffer one's services. Tender (no longer used in reference to concrete objects) is a ceremonious term for a more or less formal or conventional act: to tender one's resignation. 2. give, move, propose. —Antonyms 1. withdraw, withhold. 20. refusal, denial. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To offer Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : offer offering, proffer, crack, fling, go View more related words » Dictionary.com Free Toolbar Define Offer Instantly. Faster Page Loads With Fewer Ads. Dictionary.com World English Dictionary offer (ˈɒfə) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — vb (when tr, often foll by up ) 1. to present or proffer (something, someone, oneself, etc) for acceptance or rejection 2. ( tr ) to present as part of a requirement: she offered English as a second subject 3. ( tr ) to provide or make accessible: this stream offers the best fishing 4. ( intr ) to present itself: if an opportunity should offer 5. ( tr ) to show or express willingness or the intention (to do something) 6. ( tr ) to put forward (a proposal, opinion, etc) for consideration 7. ( tr ) to present for sale 8. ( tr ) to propose as payment; bid or tender 9. to present (a prayer, sacrifice, etc) as or during an act of worship 10. ( tr ) to show readiness for: to offer battle 11. archaic ( intr ) to make a proposal of marriage 12. ( tr; sometimes foll by up or to ) engineering to bring (a mechanical piece) near to or in contact with another, and often to proceed to fit the pieces together — n 13. something, such as a proposal or bid, that is offered 14. the act of offering or the condition of being offered 15. contract law See also acceptance a proposal made by one person that will create a binding contract if accepted unconditionally by the person to whom it is made 16. a proposal of marriage 17. short for offer price 18. on offer for sale at a reduced price [Old English, from Latin offerre to present, from ob- to + ferre to bring] 'offerer — n 'offeror — n Offer (ˈɒfə) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n acronym for Office of Electricity Regulation: merged with Ofgas in 1999 to form Ofgem Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History offer O.E. ofrian, from L. offerre "to present, bestow, bring before" (in L.L. "to present in worship"), from ob "to" + ferre "to bring, to carry" (see infer). Non-religious sense reinforced by O.Fr. offrir "to offer," from L. offerre. The noun is first recorded 1433, from O.Fr. offre (12c.), verbal noun from offrir. The native noun formation is offering (O.E. offrung ), verbal noun from offrian. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Legal Dictionary Main Entry: of·fer Pronunciation: 'o-f&r Function: noun 1 : a proposal, promise, or other manifestation of willingness to make and fulfill a contract or to bargain under proposed terms with another party that has the power to accept it upon receiving it offer > —see also REVOKE, TENDER OFFER 2 : a price named by one proposing to buy (as in a bid, bargain, or settlement) : the amount of an offer to pay money offer was too low> — offer verb Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Law, © 1996 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source Famous Quotations offer "When you draw near to a town to fight against it, offer..." "If someone is burdened with the blood of another, let t..." "If anyone strikes you on the cheek, offer the other als..." "If you have any information or evidence regarding the O..." "I had been curiously depressed all day. In the night I ..."

best Return to the top

best    /bɛst/ Show Spelled[best] Show IPA –adjective, superl. of good with better as compar. 1. of the highest quality, excellence, or standing: the best work; the best students. 2. most advantageous, suitable, or desirable: the best way. 3. largest; most: the best part of a day. –adverb, superl. of well with better as compar. 4. most excellently or suitably; with most advantage or success: an opera role that best suits her voice. 5. in or to the highest degree; most fully (usually used in combination): best-suited; best-known; best-loved. –noun 6. something or someone that is best: They always demand and get the best. The best of us can make mistakes. 7. a person's finest clothing: It's important that you wear your best. 8. a person's most agreeable or desirable emotional state (often prec. by at ). 9. a person's highest degree of competence, inspiration, etc. (often prec. by at ). 10. the highest quality to be found in a given activity or category of things (often prec. by at ): cabinetmaking at its best. 11. the best effort that a person, group, or thing can make: Their best fell far short of excellence. 12. a person's best wishes or kindest regards: Please give my best to your father. –verb (used with object) 13. to get the better of; defeat; beat: He easily bested his opponent in hand-to-hand combat. She bested me in the argument. —Idioms 14. all for the best, for the good as the final result; to an ultimate advantage: At the time it was hard to realize how it could be all for the best. Also, for the best. 15. as best one can, in the best way possible under the circumstances: We tried to smooth over the disagreement as best we could. 16. at best, under the most favorable circumstances: You may expect to be treated civilly, at best. 17. get / havethe best of, a. to gain the advantage over. b. to defeat; subdue: His arthritis gets the best of him from time to time. 18. had best, would be wisest or most reasonable to; ought to: You had best phone your mother to tell her where you are going. 19. make the best of, to cope with in the best way possible: to make the best of a bad situation. 20. with the best, on a par with the most capable: He can play bridge with the best. Use best in a Sentence See images of best Search best on the Web Origin: bef. 900; ME beste, OE betst, best; c. D best, OHG bezzist (G best ), ON bezt, Goth batists. See better1 , -est Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : best outdo, outflank, scoop, trump, better View more related words » Pro Tools Education Learn Pro Tools Skills With Us. Invest In Your Career. Apply Now! www.Expression.edu Courtyard by Marriott Courtyard Hotels Official Site. Enjoy Free WiFi & 24-hr Market. Sponsored Results Marriott.com/Courtyard Best    /bɛst/ Show Spelled[best] Show IPA –noun Charles Herbert, 1899–1978, Canadian physiologist, born in the U.S.: one of the discoverers of insulin. good    /gʊd/ Show Spelled [good] Show IPA adjective, bet·ter, best, noun, interjection, adverb –adjective 1. morally excellent; virtuous; righteous; pious: a good man. 2. satisfactory in quality, quantity, or degree: a good teacher; good health. 3. of high quality; excellent. 4. right; proper; fit: It is good that you are here. His credentials are good. 5. well-behaved: a good child. 6. kind, beneficent, or friendly: to do a good deed. 7. honorable or worthy; in good standing: a good name. 8. educated and refined: She has a good background. 9. financially sound or safe: His credit is good. 10. genuine; not counterfeit: a good quarter. 11. sound or valid: good judgment; good reasons. 12. reliable; dependable; responsible: good advice. 13. healthful; beneficial: Fresh fruit is good for you. 14. in excellent condition; healthy: good teeth. 15. not spoiled or tainted; edible; palatable: The meat was still good after three months in the freezer. 16. favorable; propitious: good news. 17. cheerful; optimistic; amiable: in good spirits. 18. free of distress or pain; comfortable: to feel good after surgery. 19. agreeable; pleasant: Have a good time. 20. attractive; handsome: She has a good figure. 21. (of the complexion) smooth; free from blemish. 22. close or intimate; warm: She's a good friend of mine. 23. sufficient or ample: a good supply. 24. advantageous; satisfactory for the purpose: a good day for fishing. 25. competent or skillful; clever: a good manager; good at arithmetic. 26. skillfully or expertly done: a really good job; a good play. 27. conforming to rules of grammar, usage, etc.; correct: good English. 28. socially proper: good manners. 29. remaining available to one: Don't throw good money after bad. 30. comparatively new or of relatively fine quality: Don't play in the mud in your good clothes. 31. best or most dressy: He wore his good suit to the office today. 32. full: a good day's journey away. 33. fairly large or great: a good amount. 34. free from precipitation or cloudiness: good weather. 35. Medicine/Medical . (of a patient's condition) having stable and normal vital signs, being conscious and comfortable, and having excellent appetite, mobility, etc. 36. fertile; rich: good soil. 37. loyal: a good Democrat. 38. (of a return or service in tennis, squash, handball, etc.) landing within the limits of a court or section of a court. 39. Horse Racing . (of the surface of a track) drying after a rain so as to be still slightly sticky: This horse runs best on a good track. 40. (of meat, esp. beef) noting or pertaining to the specific grade below “choice,” containing more lean muscle and less edible fat than “prime” or “choice.” 41. favorably regarded (used as an epithet for a ship, town, etc.): the good ship Syrena. –noun 42. profit or advantage; worth; benefit: What good will that do? We shall work for the common good. 43. excellence or merit; kindness: to do good. 44. moral righteousness; virtue: to be a power for good. 45. (esp. in the grading of U.S. beef) an official grade below that of “choice.” 46. goods, a. possessions, esp. movable effects or personal property. b. articles of trade; wares; merchandise: canned goods. c. Informal . what has been promised or is expected: to deliver the goods. d. Informal . the genuine article. e. Informal . evidence of guilt, as stolen articles: to catch someone with the goods. f. cloth or textile material: top-quality linen goods. g. Chiefly British . merchandise sent by land, rather than by water or air. 47. the good, a. the ideal of goodness or morality. b. good things or persons collectively. –interjection 48. (used as an expression of approval or satisfaction): Good! Now we can all go home. –adverb 49. Informal . well. —Idioms 50. as good as. as1 ( def. 22 ) . 51. come to no good, to end in failure or as a failure: Her jealous relatives said that she would come to no good. 52. for good, finally and permanently; forever: to leave the country for good. Also, for good and all. 53. good and, Informal . very; completely; exceedingly: This soup is good and hot. 54. good for, a. certain to repay (money owed) because of integrity, financial stability, etc. b. the equivalent in value of: Two thousand stamps are good for one coffeepot. c. able to survive or continue functioning for (the length of time or the distance indicated): These tires are good for another 10,000 miles. d. valid or in effect for (the length of time indicated): a license good for one year. e. (used as an expression of approval): Good for you! 55. good full, Nautical . (of a sail or sails) well filled, esp. when sailing close to the wind; clean full; rap full. 56. make good, a. to make recompense for; repay. b. to implement an agreement; fulfill. c. to be successful. d. to substantiate; verify. e. to carry out; accomplish; execute: The convicts made good their getaway. 57. no good, without value or merit; worthless; contemptible: The check was no good. 58. to the good, a. generally advantageous: That's all to the good, but what do I get out of it? b. richer in profit or gain: When he withdrew from the partnership, he was several thousand dollars to the good. Origin: bef. 900; ME (adj., adv., and n.); OE gōd (adj.); c. D goed, G gut, ON gōthr, Goth goths —Related forms quasi-good, adjective —Can be confused:  good, well (see usage note at this entry ). —Synonyms 1. pure, moral, conscientious, meritorious, worthy, exemplary, upright. 2. commendable, admirable. 5. obedient, heedful. 6. kindly, benevolent, humane, gracious, obliging. 23. full, adequate. 24. profitable, useful, serviceable, beneficial. 25. efficient, proficient, capable, able, ready, suited, suitable, dexterous, expert, adroit, apt. 46. See property. —Usage note Good is common as an adverb in informal speech, especially after forms of do: He did good on the test. She sees good with her new glasses. This use does not occur in formal speech or edited writing, where the adverb well is used instead: He did well on the test. She sees well with her new glasses. The adjective good is standard after linking verbs like taste, smell, look, feel, be, and seem: Everything tastes good. The biscuits smell good. You're looking good today. When used after look or feel, good may refer to spirits as well as health: I'm feeling pretty good this morning, ready to take on the world. Well is both an adjective and an adverb. As an adjective used after look, feel, or other linking verbs, it often refers to good health: You're looking well; we missed you while you were in the hospital. See also bad. well 1    /wɛl/ Show Spelled [wel] Show IPA adverb, adjective, comparative bet·ter, superlative best, interjection, noun –adverb 1. in a good or satisfactory manner: Business is going well. 2. thoroughly, carefully, or soundly: to shake well before using; listen well. 3. in a moral or proper manner: to behave well. 4. commendably, meritoriously, or excellently: a difficult task well done. 5. with propriety, justice, or reason: I could not well refuse. 6. adequately or sufficiently: Think well before you act. 7. to a considerable extent or degree: a sum well over the amount agreed upon. 8. with great or intimate knowledge: to know a person well. 9. certainly; without doubt: I anger easily, as you well know. 10. with good nature; without rancor: He took the joke well. –adjective 11. in good health; sound in body and mind: Are you well? He is not a well man. 12. satisfactory, pleasing, or good: All is well with us. 13. proper, fitting, or gratifying: It is well that you didn't go. 14. in a satisfactory position; well-off: I am very well as I am. –interjection 15. (used to express surprise, reproof, etc.): Well! There's no need to shout. 16. (used to introduce a sentence, resume a conversation, etc.): Well, who would have thought he could do it? –noun 17. well-being; good fortune; success: to wish well to someone. —Idioms 18. as well, a. in addition; also; too: She insisted on directing the play and on producing it as well. b. equally: The town grew as well because of its location as because of its superb climate. 19. as well as, as much or as truly as; equally as: Joan is witty as well as intelligent. 20. leave well enough alone, avoid changing something that is satisfactory. Origin: bef. 900; ME, OE wel ( l ) (adj. and adv.); c. D wel, G wohl, ON vel, Goth waila —Synonyms 3. properly, correctly. 4. skillfully, adeptly, accurately, efficiently. 5. suitably. 6. fully, amply. 7. rather, quite. 11. healthy, hale, hearty. 12. fine. 13. suitable, befitting, appropriate. 14. fortunate, happy. —Antonyms 3. poorly, badly. 11. ill, sick. —Usage note See good. well 2    /wɛl/ Show Spelled[wel] Show IPA –noun 1. a hole drilled or bored into the earth to obtain water, petroleum, natural gas, brine, or sulfur. 2. a spring or natural source of water. 3. an apparent reservoir or a source of human feelings, emotions, energy, etc.: He was a well of gentleness and courtesy. 4. a container, receptacle, or reservoir for a liquid: the well of ink in a fountain pen. 5. any sunken or deep, enclosed space, as a shaft for air or light, stairs, or an elevator, extending vertically through the floors of a building. 6. Nautical . a. a part of a weather deck between two superstructures, extending from one side of a vessel to the other. b. a compartment or enclosure around a ship's pumps to make them easily accessible and protect them from being damaged by the cargo. 7. a hollow compartment, recessed area, or depression for holding a specific item or items, as fish in the bottom of a boat or the retracted wheels of an airplane in flight. 8. any shaft dug or bored into the earth, as for storage space or a mine. –verb (used without object) 9. to rise, spring, or gush, as water, from the earth or some other source (often fol. by up, out, or forth ): Tears welled up in my eyes. –verb (used with object) 10. to send welling up or forth: a fountain welling its pure water. –adjective 11. like, of, resembling, from, or used in connection with a well. Origin: bef. 900; (n.) ME well ( e ), OE wylle, wella, welle; c. G Welle wave; (v.) ME wellen, OE wellan (c. D wellen, ON vella ); both n. and v. ult. akin to weallan to boil —Synonyms 3. store, fund, mine, fount. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To best World English Dictionary best (bɛst) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — adj 1. the superlative of good 2. most excellent of a particular group, category, etc 3. most suitable, advantageous, desirable, attractive, etc 4. the best part of most of: the best part of an hour 5. put one's best foot forward a. to do one's utmost to make progress b. to hurry — adv 6. the superlative of well 7. in a manner surpassing all others; most excellently, advantageously, attractively, etc 8. ( in combination ) in or to the greatest degree or extent; most: the best-loved hero 9. as best one can , as best one may as effectively as possible within one's limitations 10. had best would be wise, sensible, etc, to: you had best go now — n 11. the best the most outstanding or excellent person, thing, or group in a category 12. ( often preceded by at ) the most excellent, pleasing, or skilled quality or condition: journalism at its best 13. the most effective effort of which a person or group is capable: even their best was inadequate 14. a winning majority: the best of three games 15. Also: all the best best wishes: she sent him her best 16. a person's smartest outfit of clothing 17. at best a. in the most favourable interpretation b. under the most favourable conditions 18. for the best a. for an ultimately good outcome b. with good intentions: he meant it for the best 19. get the best of , have the best of to surpass, defeat, or outwit; better 20. give someone the best to concede someone's superiority 21. make the best of to cope as well as possible in the unfavourable circumstances of (often in the phrases make the best of a bad job, make the best of it ) 22. informal six of the best six strokes with a cane on the buttocks or hand — vb 23. ( tr ) to gain the advantage over or defeat [Old English betst ; related to Gothic batista , Old High German bezzist ] Best (bɛst) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n 1. Charles Herbert . 1899--1978, Canadian physiologist: associated with Banting and Macleod in their discovery of insulin in 1922 2. George . 1946--2005, Northern Ireland footballer Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History good O.E. god (with a long "o") "having the right or desirable quality," from P.Gmc. *gothaz (cf. O.N. goðr, Du. goed, Ger. gut, Goth. goþs ), originally "fit, adequate, belonging together," from PIE base *ghedh- "to unite, be associated, suitable" (cf. O.C.S. godu "pleasing time," Rus. godnyi "fit, suitable," O.E. gædrian "to gather, to take up together"). Irregular comparatives ( better, best ) reflect a widespread pattern, cf. L. bonus, melior, optimus . First record of good day is from c.1200. Goods "property" first recorded late 13c., but singular in the same sense was in O.E. The good neighbours is Scot. euphemism for "the fairies" (1580s). Good-for-nothing is from 1711; good-looking is from 1780; good-natured first recorded 1570s. Good sport is from 1917; good to go is attested from 1989. best O.E., reduced by assimilation of -t- from earlier O.E. betst "best, first, in the best manner," originally superlative of bot "remedy, reparation," the root word now only surviving in to boot (see boot (2)), though its comparative, better, and superlative, best , transferred to good (and in some cases well). From P.Gmc. root *bat- , with comp. *batizon and superl. *batistaz . The verb "to get the better of" is from 1863. Best-seller is from 1889; best friend was in Chaucer (late 14c.). Best girl is first attested 1887 in a Texas context; best man is 1814, originally Scottish, replacing groomsman . well "hole dug for water, spring of water," O.E. wielle (W.Saxon), welle (Anglian), from wiellan (see well (v.)). Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Medical Dictionary well definition Pronunciation: /ˈwel/ Function: adj 1 : free or recovered from infirmity or disease : HEALTHY well person> 2 : completely cured or healed wound is nearly well > Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary, © 2007 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source Best (běst), Charles Herbert . 1899-1978. American-born Canadian physiologist noted for the discovery and successful clinical application of insulin. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. Cite This Source Science Dictionary Best (běst) Pronunciation Key American-born Canadian physiologist who assisted Frederick Banting in the discovery of the hormone insulin. In acknowledgment of his work, Banting shared his portion of the 1923 Nobel Prize with Best. In addition to further refining the use of insulin, Best later discovered the vitamin choline and the enzyme histaminase, which breaks down histamine. well (wěl) Pronunciation Key A deep hole or shaft sunk into the Earth to tap a liquid or gaseous substance such as water, oil, gas, or brine. If the substance is not under sufficient pressure to flow freely from the well, it must be pumped or raised mechanically to the surface. Water or pressurized gas is sometimes pumped into a nonproducing oil well to push petroleum resources out of underground reservoirs. See also artesian well. The American Heritage® Science Dictionary Copyright © 2002. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved. Cite This Source Legal Dictionary Main Entry: good Function: noun 1 : advancement of prosperity and well-being good of the community> 2 : an item of tangible movable personal property having value but usually excluding money, securities, and negotiable instruments —usually used in pl.: as a plural : all things under section 2-105 of the Uniform Commercial Code that are movable at the time of identification to the contract for sale other than the money that is to be paid, investment securities, and choses in action b plural : all things under section 9-104 of the Uniform Commercial Code that are movable at the time that a security interest in them attaches or that are fixtures but excluding money, documents, instruments, accounts, chattel paper, general intangibles, and minerals or the like before extraction consumer goods : goods purchased primarily for personal, family, or household uses du·ra·ble goods : consumer goods that last and are used for a number of years : DURABLESfungible goods : goods of which any unit is by nature or by usage of trade the equivalent of any other unit esp. as defined by section 1-201 of the Uniform Commercial Code fu·ture goods : goods that are the subject of a contract but are not yet existing or specified hard goods : DURABLE GOODS in this entry house·hold goods : goods used in connection with the home; specifically : furniture, furnishings, and personal effects used in a dwelling as defined by section 7-209 of the Uniform Commercial Code mo·bile goods : goods as defined in section 9-103 of the Uniform Commercial Code that are mobile, are of a type (as vehicles) usually used in more than one jurisdiction, are not covered by a certificate of title, and are either the equipment of a debtor or inventory leased by a debtor or·di·nary goods : goods as defined by section 9-103 of the Uniform Commercial Code that are anything other than those covered by a certificate of title, mobile goods, or minerals pro·duc·er goods : goods (as tools and raw materials) used to produce other goods and satisfy human wants only indirectly soft goods : consumer goods that are not durable goods Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Law, © 1996 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source Idioms & Phrases best In addition to the idioms beginning with best, also see all for the best; all the best; as best one can; at best; at one's best; come off (second-best); do one's best; get the better (best) of; give it one's best shot; had better (best); make the best of it; on one's best behavior; put one's best foot forward; second best; Sunday best; in one's (best) interest; to the best of one's ability; with the best of them; with the best will in the world. Also see under better. The American Heritage® Dictionary of Idioms by Christine Ammer. Copyright © 1997. Published by Houghton Mifflin. Cite This Source Famous Quotations best "A little health now and again is the ailing person's be..." "I know some of my self-worth comes from tennis, and it'..." "Sometimes I have a notion that what might improve the s..." "The best author will be the one who is ashamed to becom..." "There are loyal hearts, there are spirits brave,

advice Return to the top

ad·vice    /ædˈvaɪs/ Show Spelled[ad-vahys] Show IPA –noun 1. an opinion or recommendation offered as a guide to action, conduct, etc.: I shall act on your advice. 2. a communication, esp. from a distance, containing information: Advice from abroad informs us that the government has fallen. Recent diplomatic advices have been ominous. 3. an official notification, esp. one pertaining to a business agreement: an overdue advice. Use advice in a Sentence See images of advice Search advice on the Web Origin: 1250–1300; late ME advise; r. ME avis (with ad- ad- for a- a-5 ) < OF a vis (taken from the phrase ce m'est a vis that is my impression, it seems to me) < L ad ( see ad-) + vīsus ( see visage) —Related forms pre·ad·vice, noun —Can be confused:  advice, advise (see synonym note at this entry ). —Synonyms 1. admonition, warning, caution; guidance; urging. Advice, counsel, recommendation, suggestion, persuasion, exhortation refer to opinions urged with more or less force as worthy bases for thought, opinion, conduct, or action. Advice is a practical recommendation as to action or conduct: advice about purchasing land. Counsel is weighty and serious advice, given after careful deliberation: counsel about one's career. Recommendation is weaker than advice and suggests an opinion that may or may not be acted upon: Do you think he'll follow my recommendation? Suggestion implies something more tentative than a recommendation: He did not expect his suggestion to be taken seriously. Persuasion suggests a stronger form of advice, urged at some length with appeals to reason, emotion, self-interest, or ideals: His persuasion changed their minds. Exhortation suggests an intensified persuasion or admonition, often in the form of a discourse or address: an impassioned exhortation. 2. intelligence, word. 3. notice, advisory. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To advice The Media Trading Experts The 1st & most adopted platform. Dozens of agencies. Billions of ads www.mediamath.com Toyota®Offers Toyota Care Get 2 Year/25,000 Mile Maintenance Plan with Toyota Care. Learn More. Sponsored Results www.SETbuyatoyota.com/ToyotaCare World English Dictionary advice (ədˈvaɪs) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n 1. recommendation as to appropriate choice of action; counsel 2. ( sometimes plural ) formal notification of facts, esp when communicated from a distance [C13: avis (later advise ), via Old French from a Vulgar Latin phrase based on Latin ad to, according to + vīsum view (hence: according to one's view, opinion)] Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History advice c.1300, auys "opinion," from O.Fr. avis "opinion," from phrase ce m'est à vis "it seems to me," or from V.L. *mi est visum "in my view," ult. from L. ad- "to" + visum, neut. pp. of videre "to see" (see vision). The unhistoric -d- was introduced in Eng. 15c., on model of L. words in ad- . Substitution of -c- for -s- is 18c., to preserve the breath sound and to distinguish from advise. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Legal Dictionary Main Entry: ad·vice Pronunciation: &d-'vIs Function: noun 1 : recommendation regarding a decision or course of conduct advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties — U.S. Constitution article II> < advice of counsel> 2 : an official notice concerning a business transaction Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Law, © 1996 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source Famous Quotations advice "I, wisdom, live with prudence, and I attain knowledge a..." "Fools think their own way is right, but the wise listen..." "All the rest was indefinite, as the soundest advice eve..." "I wish to God that you had as much pleasure in followin..." "The most consistent gift and burden of motherhood is ad..."

exhaust Return to the top

An exhaust system is usually tubing used to guide reaction exhaust gases away from a controlled combustion inside an engine or stove. The entire system conveys burnt gases from the engine and includes one or more exhaust pipes. Depending on the overall system design, the exhaust gas may flow through one or more of: * Cylinder head and exhaust manifold * A turbocharger to increase engine power. * A catalytic converter to reduce air pollution. * A muffler (North America) / silencer (Europe), to reduce noise. Contents [hide] * 1 Design criteria o 1.1 Motorcycles o 1.2 Trucks o 1.3 Two-stroke engines o 1.4 Marine engines o 1.5 Outboard motors * 2 Terminology o 2.1 Manifold or header o 2.2 Header-back o 2.3 Turbo-back o 2.4 Screamer pipe o 2.5 With or without catalytic converter o 2.6 Cat-back o 2.7 Tailpipe and tip * 3 Exhaust System Tuning * 4 Images * 5 See also * 6 References * 7 External links [edit] Design criteria An exhaust pipe must be carefully designed to carry toxic and/or noxious gases away from the users of the machine. Indoor generators and furnaces can quickly fill an enclosed space with carbon monoxide or other poisonous exhaust gases if they are not properly vented to the outdoors. Also, the gases from most types of machine are very hot; the pipe must be heat-resistant, and it must not pass through or near anything which can burn or can be damaged by heat. A chimney serves as an exhaust pipe in a stationary structure. For the internal combustion engine it is important to have the Exhaust System "Tuned" (refer to tuned pipe) for optimal efficiency. [edit] Motorcycles Ducati muffler In most motorcycles all or most of the exhaust system is visible and may be chrome plated as a display feature. Aftermarket exhausts may be made from steel, aluminium, titanium, or carbon fiber. Motorcycle exhausts come in many varieties depending on the type of engine and its intended use. A twin cylinder may flow its exhaust into separate exhaust sections, such as seen in the Kawasaki EX250 (also known as the Ninja 250 in the US, or the GPX 250). Or, they may flow into a single exhaust section known as a two-into-one (2-1). Larger engines that come with 4 cylinders, such as Japanese supersport or superbikes (such the Kawasaki ZX series, Honda's CBR series, Yamaha's YZF series, also known as R6 and R1, and Suzuki's GSX-R series) often come with a twin exhaust system. A "full system" may be bought as an aftermarket accessory, also called a 4-2-1 or 4-1, depending on its layout. In the past, these bikes would come standard with a single exhaust, as seen on the Kawasaki ZX-6R 2000 and 2001 models. However, EU noise and pollution regulations have generally stopped this practice, forcing companies to use other methods to increase performance of the motorcycle. This has often led to a decrease in fuel economy, because of increased weight of the exhaust system and manufacturers forcing more fuel into the engine to gain extra power. [edit] Trucks In many trucks / lorries all or most of the exhaust system is visible. Often in such trucks the silencer is surrounded by a perforated metal sheath to avoid people getting burnt touching the hot silencer. This sheath may be chrome plated as a display feature. Part of the pipe between the engine and the silencer is often flexible metal industrial ducting, as in the image in the section "Terminology". Sometimes a large diesel exhaust pipe is vertical, to blow the hot noxious gas well away from people; in such cases the end of the exhaust pipe often has a hinged metal flap to stop debris and birds and rainwater from falling inside. Sometimes these exhaust pipes have a flex connector attached with it. This helps in minimising the vibration from the engine to be transferred into the exhaust system. [edit] Two-stroke engines In a two-stroke engine, such as that used on dirt bikes, a bulge in the exhaust pipe known as an expansion chamber uses the pressure of the exhaust to create a pump that squeezes more air and fuel into the cylinder during the intake stroke. This provides greater power and fuel efficiency. See Kadenacy effect. [edit] Marine engines With an onboard diesel engine below-decks on marine vessels:- * Lagging the exhaust pipe stops it from overheating the engine room where people must work to service the engine. * Feeding water into the exhaust pipe cools the exhaust gas and thus lessens the back-pressure at the engine's cylinders' exhaust ports and thus helps the cylinders to empty quicker. [edit] Outboard motors In outboard motors the exhaust system is usually a vertical passage through the engine structure and to reduce out-of-water noise blows out underwater, sometimes through the middle of the propeller. [edit] Terminology [edit] Manifold or header Aftermarket exhaust manifold In most production engines, the manifold is an assembly designed to collect the exhaust gas from two or more cylinders into one pipe. Manifolds are often made of cast iron in stock production cars, and may have material-saving design features such as to use the least metal, to occupy the least space necessary, or have the lowest production cost. These design restrictions often result in a design that is cost effective but that does not do the most efficient job of venting the gases from the engine. Inefficiencies generally occur due to the nature of the combustion engine and its cylinders. Since cylinders fire at different times, exhaust leaves them at different times, and pressure waves from gas emerging from one cylinder might not be completely vacated through the exhaust system when another comes. This creates a back pressure and restriction in the engine's exhaust system that can restrict the engine's true performance possibilities. A header (sometimes called extractor in Australia) is a manifold specifically designed for performance.[1] During design, engineers create a manifold without regard to weight or cost but instead for optimal flow of the exhaust gases. This design results in a header that is more efficient at scavenging the exhaust from the cylinders. Headers are generally circular steel tubing with bends and folds calculated to make the paths from each cylinder's exhaust port to the common outlet all equal length, and joined at narrow angles to encourage pressure waves to flow through the outlet, and not back towards other cylinders. In a set of tuned headers the pipe lengths are carefully calculated to enhance exhaust flow in a particular engine revolutions per minute range. Headers are generally made by aftermarket automotive companies, but sometimes can be bought from the high-performance parts department at car dealerships. Generally, most car performance enthusiasts buy aftermarket headers made by companies solely focused on producing reliable, cost-effective well-designed headers specifically for their car. Headers can also be custom designed by a custom shop. Due to the advanced materials that some aftermarket headers are made of, this can be expensive. Luckily, an exhaust system can be custom built for any car, and generally is not specific to the car's motor or design except for needing to properly connect solidly to the engine. This is usually accomplished by correct sizing in the design stage, and selecting a proper gasket type and size for the engine. [edit] Header-back The Header-back (or header back) is the part of the exhaust system from the outlet of the header to the final vent to open air — everything from the header back. Header-back systems are generally produced as aftermarket performance systems for cars without turbochargers.[2] [edit] Turbo-back The Turbo-back (or turbo back) is the part of the exhaust system from the outlet of a turbocharger to the final vent to open air. Turbo-back systems are generally produced as aftermarket performance systems for cars with turbochargers. Some turbo-back (and header-back) systems replace stock catalytic converters with others having less flow restriction. [edit] Screamer pipe To regulate the boost pressure on turbo charged cars, a custom wastegate is fitted to allow exhaust gases to bypass the turbine and pass straight down the exhaust down pipe. This can cause turbulent airflow around the turbine so to overcome this problem gases can be re-routed down a separate pipe about thirty centimetres long and vented straight to atmosphere. The reason for the term screamer pipe is the loud noise they produce. These are not for street use. [edit] With or without catalytic converter Some systems (including in former time all systems) (sometimes nowadays called catless) eliminate the catalytic converter. This is illegal in some places if the vehicle is driven on public roads. [edit] Cat-back Cat-back (also cat back and catback) refers to the portion of the exhaust system from the outlet of the catalytic converter to the final vent to open air. This generally includes the pipe from the converter to the muffler, the muffler, and the final length of pipe to open air. Cat-back exhaust systems generally use larger diameter pipe than the stock system. Good systems will have mandrel-bent turns that allow the exhaust gas to exit with as little back pressure as possible. The mufflers included in these kits are often glasspacks, to reduce back pressure. If the system is engineered more for show than functionality, it may be tuned to enhance the lower sounds that are lacking from high-RPM low-displacement engines. [edit] Tailpipe and tip With trucks, sometimes the silencer is crossways under the front of the cab and its tailpipe blows sideways to the offside (right side if driving on the left, left side if driving on the right). The side of a passenger car on which the exhaust exits beneath the rear bumper usually indicates the market for which the vehicle was designed, i.e. Japanese (and some older British) vehicles have exhausts on the right so they are furthest from the curb in countries which drive on the left, while European vehicles have exhausts on the left.[citation needed] The end of the final length of exhaust pipe where it vents to open air, generally the only visible part of the exhaust system part on a vehicle, often ends with just a straight or angled cut, but may include a fancy tip. The tip is sometimes chromed. It is often of larger pipe than the rest of the exhaust system. This produces a final reduction in pressure, and sometimes used to enhance the appearance of the car. In the late 1950s in the United States manufacturers had a fashion in car styling to form the rear bumper with a hole at each end through which the exhaust would pass. Two outlets symbolized V-8 power, and only the most expensive cars (Cadillac, Lincoln, Imperial, Packard) were fitted with this design. One justification for this was that luxury cars in those days had such a long rear overhang that the exhaust pipe scraped the ground when the car traversed ramps. The fashion disappeared after customers noted that the rear end of the car, being a low-pressure area, collected soot from the exhaust and its acidic content ate into the chrome-plated rear bumper. When a bus, truck or tractor or excavator has a vertical exhaust pipe (called stacks or pipes behind the cab), sometimes the end is curved, or has a hinged cover flap which the gas flow blows out of the way, to try to prevent foreign objects (including droppings from a bird perching on the exhaust pipe when the vehicle is not being used) getting inside the exhaust pipe. In some trucks, when the silencer is front-to-back under the chassis, the end of the tailpipe turns 90° and blows downwards. That protects anyone near a stationary truck from getting a direct blast of the exhaust gas, but often raises dust when the truck is driving on a dry dusty unmade surface such as on a building site. [edit] Exhaust System Tuning Aftermarket exhaust system including headers and a white plasma-sprayed ceramic coating Many automotive companies offer aftermarket exhaust system upgrades as a subcategory of engine tuning. This is often fairly expensive as it usually includes replacing the entire exhaust manifold or other large components. These upgrades however can significantly improve engine performance and do this through means of two main principles: * By reducing the exhaust back pressure, engine power is increased in four-stroke engines * By reducing the amount of heat from the exhaust being lost into the underbonnet area. This reduces the underbonnet temperature and consequently lowers the intake manifold temperature, increasing power. This also has positive side effect of preventing heat-sensitive components from being damaged. Furthermore, keeping the heat in the exhaust gases speeds these up, therefore reducing back pressure as well. Back pressure is most commonly reduced by replacing exhaust manifolds with headers, which have smoother bends and normally wider pipe diameters. Exhaust Heat Management is the term that describes reducing the amount of exhaust heat loss. One dominant solution to aftermarket upgraders is the use of a ceramic coating applied via thermal spraying. This not only reduces heat loss and lessens back pressure, but provides an effective way to protect the exhaust system from wear and tear, thermal degradation and corrosion.[3]

systems Return to the top

* jugum * forfend * affable * egregious systems - 5 dictionary results SPSS Data Mining Paper Learn The Top 3 Keys To Data Mining In This Free SPSS White Paper Now. www.IBM.com/SPSS_data_mining Ocular Syndromes - 4th Ed Trusted ophthalmology book is the reference source for eye diseases. www.amazon.com Med Billing Certificates Online Medical Billing and Coding Certificates. Request Free Info! Sponsored Results EarnMyDegree.com/MedicalBilling sys·tem    /ˈsɪstəm/ Show Spelled[sis-tuhm] Show IPA –noun 1. an assemblage or combination of things or parts forming a complex or unitary whole: a mountain system; a railroad system. 2. any assemblage or set of correlated members: a system of currency; a system of shorthand characters. 3. an ordered and comprehensive assemblage of facts, principles, doctrines, or the like in a particular field of knowledge or thought: a system of philosophy. 4. a coordinated body of methods or a scheme or plan of procedure; organizational scheme: a system of government. 5. any formulated, regular, or special method or plan of procedure: a system of marking, numbering, or measuring; a winning system at bridge. 6. due method or orderly manner of arrangement or procedure: There is no system in his work. 7. the world or universe. 8. Astronomy . a. a number of heavenly bodies associated and acting together according to certain natural laws: the solar system. b. a hypothesis or theory of the disposition and arrangements of the heavenly bodies by which their phenomena, motions, changes, etc., are explained: the Ptolemaic system; the Copernican system. 9. Biology . a. an assemblage of organs or related tissues concerned with the same function: the nervous system; the digestive system. b. the entire human or animal body considered as a functioning unit: an ingredient toxic to the system. 10. one's psychological makeup, esp. with reference to desires or preoccupations: to get something out of one's system. 11. a method or scheme of classification: the Linnean system of plants. 12. ( sometimes initial capital letter ) the prevailing structure or organization of society, business, or politics or of society in general; establishment (usually prec. by the ): to work within the system instead of trying to change it. 13. Geology . a major division of rocks comprising sedimentary deposits and igneous masses formed during a single geologic period. 14. Physical Chemistry . a combination of two or more phases, as a binary system, each of which consists of one or more substances, that is attaining or is in equilibrium. 15. Computers . a working combination of hardware, software, and data communications devices. 16. Checkers . either of the two groups of 16 playing squares on four alternate columns. Use systems in a Sentence See images of systems Search systems on the Web Origin: 1610–20; < LL systēma < Gk sýstēma whole compounded of several parts, equiv. to sy- sy- + stē- (var. s. of histánai to cause to stand; akin to L stāre to stand) + -ma n. suffix denoting result of action —Related forms sys·tem·less, adjective in·ter·sys·tem, adjective su·per·sys·tem, noun —Synonyms 1. organization. 7. cosmos. 9b. organism. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To systems Preconfigured Dashboards Industry metrics and KPIs for your ERP data www.bluemarlinsys.com/bi Sales Force Automation Can you manage if you don't measure Free 30-day trial 800-699-4164 Sponsored Results www.leadmaster.com Word Origin & History system 1610s, "the whole creation, the universe," from L.L. systema "an arrangement, system," from Gk. systema "organized whole, body," from syn- "together" + root of histanai "cause to stand" from PIE base *sta- "to stand" (see stet). Meaning "set of correlated principles, facts, ideas, etc." first recorded 1630s. Meaning "animal body as an organized whole, sum of the vital processes in an organism" is recorded from 1680s; hence figurative phrase to get (something) out of one's system (1900). Computer sense of "group of related programs" is recorded from 1963. All systems go (1962) is from U.S. space program. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Medical Dictionary sys·tem definition Pronunciation: /ˈsis-təm/ Function: n 1 a : a group of body organs or structures that together perform one or more vital functions see CIRCULATORY SYSTEM digestive system endocrine system limbic system NERVOUS SYSTEM REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM RESPIRATORY SYSTEM b : the body considered as a functional unit 2 : a manner of classifying, symbolizing, or schematizing taxonomic system > Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary, © 2007 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source system sys·tem (sĭs'təm) n. 1. A group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements forming a complex whole. 2. An organism or body considered as a whole, especially with regard to its vital processes or functions. 3. A group of physiologically or anatomically complementary organs or parts. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. Cite This Source Cultural Dictionary system definition A group of bodily organs that have similar structures or work together to perform some function, such as the digestive system, nervous system, and respiratory system. The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Cite This Source Famous Quotations system "... the loss of belief in future states is politically,..." "No civilization ... would ever have been possible witho..." "Our systems, perhaps, are nothing more than an unconsci..." "The machines that are first invented to perform any par..." "The race of prophets is extinct. Europe is becoming set..."

* jugum * forfend * affable * egregious systems - 5 dictionary results SPSS Data Mining Paper Learn The Top 3 Keys To Data Mining In This Free SPSS White Paper Now. www.IBM.com/SPSS_data_mining Ocular Syndromes - 4th Ed Trusted ophthalmology book is the reference source for eye diseases. www.amazon.com Med Billing Certificates Online Medical Billing and Coding Certificates. Request Free Info! Sponsored Results EarnMyDegree.com/MedicalBilling sys·tem    /ˈsɪstəm/ Show Spelled[sis-tuhm] Show IPA –noun 1. an assemblage or combination of things or parts forming a complex or unitary whole: a mountain system; a railroad system. 2. any assemblage or set of correlated members: a system of currency; a system of shorthand characters. 3. an ordered and comprehensive assemblage of facts, principles, doctrines, or the like in a particular field of knowledge or thought: a system of philosophy. 4. a coordinated body of methods or a scheme or plan of procedure; organizational scheme: a system of government. 5. any formulated, regular, or special method or plan of procedure: a system of marking, numbering, or measuring; a winning system at bridge. 6. due method or orderly manner of arrangement or procedure: There is no system in his work. 7. the world or universe. 8. Astronomy . a. a number of heavenly bodies associated and acting together according to certain natural laws: the solar system. b. a hypothesis or theory of the disposition and arrangements of the heavenly bodies by which their phenomena, motions, changes, etc., are explained: the Ptolemaic system; the Copernican system. 9. Biology . a. an assemblage of organs or related tissues concerned with the same function: the nervous system; the digestive system. b. the entire human or animal body considered as a functioning unit: an ingredient toxic to the system. 10. one's psychological makeup, esp. with reference to desires or preoccupations: to get something out of one's system. 11. a method or scheme of classification: the Linnean system of plants. 12. ( sometimes initial capital letter ) the prevailing structure or organization of society, business, or politics or of society in general; establishment (usually prec. by the ): to work within the system instead of trying to change it. 13. Geology . a major division of rocks comprising sedimentary deposits and igneous masses formed during a single geologic period. 14. Physical Chemistry . a combination of two or more phases, as a binary system, each of which consists of one or more substances, that is attaining or is in equilibrium. 15. Computers . a working combination of hardware, software, and data communications devices. 16. Checkers . either of the two groups of 16 playing squares on four alternate columns. Use systems in a Sentence See images of systems Search systems on the Web Origin: 1610–20; < LL systēma < Gk sýstēma whole compounded of several parts, equiv. to sy- sy- + stē- (var. s. of histánai to cause to stand; akin to L stāre to stand) + -ma n. suffix denoting result of action —Related forms sys·tem·less, adjective in·ter·sys·tem, adjective su·per·sys·tem, noun —Synonyms 1. organization. 7. cosmos. 9b. organism. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To systems Preconfigured Dashboards Industry metrics and KPIs for your ERP data www.bluemarlinsys.com/bi Sales Force Automation Can you manage if you don't measure Free 30-day trial 800-699-4164 Sponsored Results www.leadmaster.com Word Origin & History system 1610s, "the whole creation, the universe," from L.L. systema "an arrangement, system," from Gk. systema "organized whole, body," from syn- "together" + root of histanai "cause to stand" from PIE base *sta- "to stand" (see stet). Meaning "set of correlated principles, facts, ideas, etc." first recorded 1630s. Meaning "animal body as an organized whole, sum of the vital processes in an organism" is recorded from 1680s; hence figurative phrase to get (something) out of one's system (1900). Computer sense of "group of related programs" is recorded from 1963. All systems go (1962) is from U.S. space program. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Medical Dictionary sys·tem definition Pronunciation: /ˈsis-təm/ Function: n 1 a : a group of body organs or structures that together perform one or more vital functions see CIRCULATORY SYSTEM digestive system endocrine system limbic system NERVOUS SYSTEM REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM RESPIRATORY SYSTEM b : the body considered as a functional unit 2 : a manner of classifying, symbolizing, or schematizing taxonomic system > Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary, © 2007 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source system sys·tem (sĭs'təm) n. 1. A group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements forming a complex whole. 2. An organism or body considered as a whole, especially with regard to its vital processes or functions. 3. A group of physiologically or anatomically complementary organs or parts. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. Cite This Source Cultural Dictionary system definition A group of bodily organs that have similar structures or work together to perform some function, such as the digestive system, nervous system, and respiratory system. The American Heritage® New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Cite This Source Famous Quotations system "... the loss of belief in future states is politically,..." "No civilization ... would ever have been possible witho..." "Our systems, perhaps, are nothing more than an unconsci..." "The machines that are first invented to perform any par..." "The race of prophets is extinct. Europe is becoming set..."

brakes Return to the top

A brake is a device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes. Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel. Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechansims, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air during landing. Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (K = mv2 / 2), an object traveling at 10 meters per second has 100 times as much energy as one traveling at 1 meter per second, and consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed. Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight. Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake. Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake. When the brake pedal is pushed a piston pushes the pad towards the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes towards the drum which also slows the wheel down. Contents [hide] * 1 Types * 2 Characteristics o 2.1 Brake boost * 3 Noise * 4 Inefficiency * 5 See also * 6 References * 7 External links [edit] Types Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics. One brake may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create friction. Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction. Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating disc, commonly called a "disc brake". Other brake configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand laterally. Pumping brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery. For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve override called a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure resivoir called an hydraulic accumulator. Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with an internal short-circuit. [edit] Characteristics Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including: * peak force The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained. The peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake can cause a wheel skid. * continuous power dissipation Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that can be dissipated through the brake without failure is the continuous power dissipation. Continuous power dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and speed of ambient cooling air. * fade As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade. Some designs are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further, use considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on fade. * smoothness A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts varying brake force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and friction brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids, which increases maintenance costs and leads to a "thump thump" feeling for riders inside. [1] * power Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human application force leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other brakes in the same class. This notion of "powerful" does not relate to continuous power dissipation, and may be confusing in that a brake may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet have lower (worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake. * Pedal Feel Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power output as a function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement of the brake and other factors. * Drag Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on design of the system to accommodate total system compliance and deformation that exists under braking with ability to retract friction material from the rubbing surface in the off-brake condition. * durability Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed periodically. Wear surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may be tradeoffs, for example a wear surface that generates high peak force may also wear quickly. * weight Brakes are often "added weight" in that they serve no other function. Further, brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt traction in some circumstances. "Weight" may mean the brake itself, or may include additional support structure. * noise Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create squeal or grinding noises that are quite loud. [edit] Brake boost Most modern vehicles are equipped with a brake boost system that greatly increases the force applied to the vehicle's brakes by its operator.[2] This additional force is supplied by the vacuum generated by the running engine, but this force is greatly reduced when the engine is running at full throttle and the available vacuum is diminished. Because of this, reports of unintended acceleration are often accompanied by complaints of failed or weakened brakes, as the high-revving engine is unable to provide enough vacuum to power the brake booster. This problem is exacerbated in vehicles equipped with automatic transmissions as the vehicle will automatically downshift upon application of the brakes, thereby further elevating engine RPM and reducing available braking power while increasing the engine's effective torque. [edit] Noise Brake lever on a horse-drawn hearse. Main article: Roadway noise Although ideally a brake would convert all the kinetic energy into heat, in practice a significant amount may be converted into acoustic energy instead, contributing to noise pollution. For road vehicles, the noise produced varies significantly with tire construction, road surface, and the magnitude of the deceleration.[3] Noise can be caused by different things. These are signs that there may be issues with brakes wearing out.[4] [edit] Inefficiency A significant amount of energy is always lost while braking, even with regenerative braking which is not perfectly efficient. Therefore a good metric of efficient energy use while driving is to note how much one is braking. If the majority of deceleration is from unavoidable friction instead of braking, one is squeezing out most of the service from the vehicle. Minimizing brake use is one of the fuel economy-maximizing behaviors. While energy is always lost during a brake event, a secondary factor that influences efficiency is "off-brake drag", or drag that occurs when the brake is not intentionally actuated. After a braking event, hydraulic pressure drops in the system , allowing the brake caliper pistons to retract. However, this retraction must accommodate all compliance in the system (under pressure) as well as thermal distortion of components like the brake disc or the brake system will drag until the contact with the disc, for example, knocks the pads and pistons back from the rubbing surface. During this time, there can be significant brake drag. This brake drag can lead to significant parasitic power loss, thus impact fuel economy and vehicle performance.

rear-sets Return to the top

* Rear-projection television Rear projection television or RPTV is a type of large-screen television display ... earlier rear-projection TVs ... not hang up their sets, the ... 7 KB (1,101 words) - 00:47, 31 December 2010 * Ausper It started life as a normal Formula Junior car, with a rear-mounted engine set in a tubular space frame. Originally, it was based on the ... 754 B (121 words) - 13:01, 4 December 2010 * WEGA audio and video manufacturer, manufacturing some of Germany's earliest radio sets. ... Sony's rear-projection televisions, either SXRD ... 3 KB (350 words) - 20:04, 4 December 2010 * Arkon (automobile) The 33 | in | mm | adj mid | high car is an exotic-looking GT powered by a rear-mounted Imp engine; the whole is set on a Triumph ... 514 B (63 words) - 20:43, 20 August 2010 * Liquid crystal on silicon manufacturers produced LCoS-based rear-projection televisions for the ... stopped buying rear projection sets, and as of July 2010 LCoS- ... 7 KB (995 words) - 20:44, 2 January 2011 * Large-screen television technology (section Rear-projection television) two sets of electrodes, dielectric material, and protective layers. ... Rear-projection television: date July 2009 Rear-projection television ... 29 KB (4,485 words) - 04:24, 6 September 2010 * Automobile layout (redirect from Rear-wheel drive) Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories: front- or rear- ... Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, most American companies set as a ... 37 KB (5,532 words) - 14:49, 15 January 2011 * Antique radio (section Crystal sets) Era, for vacuum tube sets and the first five years of transistor sets. ... live connections on the rear is wise, and often legally obligatory. ... 21 KB (3,203 words) - 07:26, 7 January 2011 * Top Gear (series 3) Stig sets a lap time of 1:25.8. | ... by refusing unorthodox mid- or rear-engined configurations and keeping them with a modicum of practicality. ... 21 KB (3,310 words) - 19:23, 27 November 2010 * Oldsmobile Omega of a set, in contrast to Alpha, the first letter of the Greek alphabet. ... 1973–1979 - rear-wheel drive , related to the Chevrolet Nova . ... 4 KB (545 words) - 18:08, 27 November 2010 * Café racer Seate Mike, Cafe Racer: The Motorcycle: Featherbeds, clip-ons, rear-sets and the making of a ton-up boy. Parker House, 2008 ISBN ... 10 KB (1,547 words) - 21:42, 15 December 2010 * UHP (lamp) such as Samsung and RCA to power their DLP rear-projection TV lines. ... Devices using UHP lamps : Samsung DLP rear-projection TV sets. ... 2 KB (253 words) - 04:44, 3 December 2010 * John Kemp Starley the Rover Safety Bicycle - a rear-wheel-drive, chain-driven cycle ... Cycling magazine said the Rover had 'set the pattern to the world' and ... 3 KB (329 words) - 09:35, 15 November 2010 * Overlander (train) Bay Express servery/observation/rear-view car, and what was once both ... cars and made into three 3-car/1-van sets for "new" Overlander/ ... 16 KB (2,122 words) - 13:10, 27 December 2010 * Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics (section Rear-wheel steering) "who can successfully ride the rear-steered bicycle, Rear Steered ... The need to "set up" for a turn, lean the bike to the appropriate angle ... 92 KB (13,527 words) - 19:08, 15 January 2011 * Lego Modular Houses (section Sets) Modular Houses is a series of Lego building toy sets introduced in 2007. ... set was considered which lacked rear exterior walls, had no ... 15 KB (2,399 words) - 08:10, 9 January 2011 * Scalextric (section Sets) Scalextric is a toy brand for a range of slot car racing sets which first appeared ... C80 Offenhauser rear engine, C81 Cooper, C82 Lotus, C83 ... 16 KB (2,338 words) - 00:05, 10 January 2011 * Strength training (section Combined sets) that the rear, front shoulders and back, the day after that the chest. ... Pyramid sets : Pyramid sets are weight training sets in which the ... 59 KB (8,585 words) - 20:41, 13 January 2011 * Touring car racing (section Rule sets) featuring front-wheel drive , four-wheel drive and rear-wheel drive cars with smaller engines. ... Rule sets: Different sets of regulations do apply: ... 16 KB (2,221 words) - 13:37, 14 January 2011 * Radio-controlled drifting practitioners use gas-powered (Nitro) R/C cars and/or rear-wheel drive vehicles. ... guidelines and judging criteria set by professional drifting ... 6 KB (898 words) - 15:16, 4 September 2010

steering dampers Return to the top

A steering damper, steering stabiliser or sprint damper is a damping device designed to inhibit an undesirable, uncontrolled movement or oscillation of a vehicle steering mechanism (a phenomenon known in the motorcycling community as 'wobble', or in extreme cases, a 'tank-slapper'). Modern motorbikes are unlikely to exhibit this behaviour in daily use thanks in part to better dampers and due to their very stiff front ends and other general improvements in design and tyre technology. [edit] Device usage Sport bikes have a short wheel base and an aggressive steering geometry to provide the ability to make very quick changes in direction. This has the generally undesirable side-effect of making the bike less stable, more prone to feedback from uneven road surfaces, and more difficult to control.[1] In addition, their light weight and powerful engine can cause frequent wheelies. If the front wheel significantly deviates from the direction of travel when it touches down, it may cause an unwanted wobble. Steering dampers are factory installed on some high-end sport motorcycles and fitted to most contemporary racing bikes to counter these behaviours. Steering dampers are also mounted to off-road motorcycles such as motocross bikes[2]. A damper helps keep the bike tracking straight over difficult terrain such as ruts, rocks, and sand, and also smooths out jolts through the handlebars at the end of jumps. They also reduce arm fatigue on longer rides by reducing the amount of effort needed to control the handlebars. Transverse linear steering damper (centre foreground) On motorcycles, one end of the damper mechanism is mounted to the steering yoke, the other to the frame. Steering dampers are available in two forms. Linear dampers resemble a telescoping shock absorber and operate in a similar manner. They can be aligned either longitudinally and to one side of the steering, or transversely across the bike. Rotary dampers resemble small boxes and operate via a rotating pivot. They are mounted coaxially with the steering axis and are typically located on top of the steering head. For motorcycles with sidecars, especially for solo motorcycles which have had a sidecar installed later and where the front wheel geometry (trail) has not been adjusted for the particular use with a sidecar, the installation of a steering damper is highly recommended and extremely beneficial. This prevents low speed wobble which may occur in the lower speed range of about 13 to 20 mph. In older motorcycles adjustable friction dampers had been routinely installed. Hydraulically operated steering dampers may be retrofitted. The installation and operation of a steering damper must be inspected by an expert or examiner and must be entered in the vehicle papers. [3]

hid kits Return to the top

* Headlamp (redirect from HID headlamp) accurately to roadway obstacles with good HID headlamps rather than ... HID kits and the law | publisher Hella | date | accessdate 2010-12-29 ... 79 KB (11,776 words) - 19:59, 11 January 2011 * High-intensity discharge lamp (redirect from HID lamp) A high-intensity discharge (HID) lamp is a type of electrical lamp which produces ... html Headlamp HID kits — technical and legal factors ... 11 KB (1,606 words) - 00:27, 28 November 2010 * HID Manager HID Manager is the standard USB HID API on Mac OS X . ... also relatively close to the Microsoft Windows Windows Driver Kit (WDK) USB HID API. ... 743 B (101 words) - 20:25, 22 August 2010 * Kit Carson Christopher Houston "Kit" Carson (December 24, 1809 – May 23, 1868) was an American ... When the Indians refused to move and hid in the Canyon ... 62 KB (9,789 words) - 03:49, 16 January 2011 * Bluetooth profile (section Human Interface Device Profile (HID)) allow car hands-free kits to communicate with mobile phones in the car. ... The use of the HID protocol simplifies host implementation (ex: ... 22 KB (3,136 words) - 22:32, 11 January 2011 * Snicket family Kit's raft carries her to the same island where the Baudelaires ... some of the eyes of Count Olaf's house hid secret peepholes, cameras, or ... 18 KB (2,465 words) - 19:28, 12 January 2011 * BMW X5 (E53) s ever to have a large chrome-tipped exhaust which hid the quad pipes. ... Bluetooth kits straight from the factory if ordered with the Premium Package. ... 10 KB (1,546 words) - 15:01, 10 December 2010 * SD Gundam Force Emaki Musharetsuden (section Model kits) Shy-Tarn hid in the haunted house visited by Retsumaru, Jimusuke, ... This small number of kits extends to the series releasing a single kit ... 23 KB (3,616 words) - 18:02, 1 December 2010 * List of TaleSpin characters He first encountered Baloo when he hid in the Sea Duck to escape ... Sea Duck when appropriate, trusting in Kit's skill to let him have some fun. ... 50 KB (8,115 words) - 01:50, 7 January 2011 * Universal Serial Bus (section Human interface devices (HIDs)) Human interface devices (HIDs) ... html | title Seagate ships USB 3.0-based external hard-drive kit for laptops | CES 2010 - CNET | publisher ... 110 KB (16,389 words) - 22:15, 16 January 2011 * Atmel AVR (section Development tools and evaluation kits) Also freely available low-speed (1.5 Mbit/s) (HID ) bitbanging ... Development tools and evaluation kits: tools and evaluation kits consists of a ... 28 KB (4,151 words) - 08:14, 12 January 2011 * Ford Mustang (fifth generation) Ford Sync was available on the 2009 model only as a dealer-installed kit. standard side airbags (2008), HID headlamps (2008), and ... 52 KB (7,892 words) - 01:28, 12 January 2011 * Port Arthur massacre (Australia) In April 1995, he also purchased cleaning kits for a .30 calibre ... He also hid the weapons and a large amount of ammunition at his house. ... 50 KB (8,083 words) - 07:27, 10 January 2011 * Xbox 360 accessories batteries Original Play & Charge Kits provided up to 25 hours of play ... USB HID-compliant keyboards can be plugged directly into the console ... 55 KB (8,495 words) - 17:31, 7 January 2011 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution generator, BBS forged wheels, HID xenon headlights, foglights, accessory gauge package, "zero lift" kit, special badging and an aluminum roof. ... 56 KB (8,323 words) - 08:51, 13 January 2011 * Lincoln MKZ signature waterfall grille and jeweled quad projector beam headlights (HID headlights were available). ... External links: com/press_kits_detail. cfm? ... 21 KB (3,077 words) - 12:48, 9 January 2011 * Lincoln MKS and optional adaptive HID headlights (also shown in the MKS Concept Other features that are ... External links : com/press_kits_detail. cfm? ... 23 KB (3,427 words) - 17:47, 4 January 2011 * Mitsubishi Lancer such as sports interiors, alloys and body kits off higher spec models. ... Adaptive Front-lighting System (AFS) with HID as well as 18" alloy wheels. ... 63 KB (9,189 words) - 05:55, 16 January 2011 * Deportivo de La Coruña But this season still hid a great surprise for the club. ... yet their second and third kits change annually according to commercial interests. ... 53 KB (4,891 words) - 00:13, 17 January 2011 * Eagle Cars Limited The SS was based on an American kit car called the Cimbria (itself ... the dramatic bodywork of the Eagle SS hid humble VW Beetle underpinnings. ... 7 KB (1,035 words) - 17:58, 4 November 2010

components Return to the top

com·po·nent    /kəmˈpoʊnənt, kɒm-/ Show Spelled[kuhm-poh-nuhnt, kom-] Show IPA –noun 1. a constituent part; element; ingredient. 2. a part of a mechanical or electrical system: hi-fi components. 3. Physics . the projection of a vector quantity, as force or velocity, along an axis. 4. Physical Chemistry . one of the set of the minimum number of chemical constituents by which every phase of a given system can be described. 5. Mathematics . a. a connected subset of a set, not contained in any other connected subset of the set. b. a coordinate of a vector. 6. Linguistics . a. one of the major subdivisions of a generative grammar: base component; transformational component; semantic component; phonological component. Compare level ( def. 16 ) . b. a feature determined by componential analysis. –adjective 7. being or serving as an element (in something larger); composing; constituent: the component parts of a computer system. Use components in a Sentence See images of components Search components on the Web Origin: 1555–65; < L compōnent- (s. of compōnēns, prp. of compōnere to put together), equiv. to com- com- + pōn ( ere ) to put + -ent- -ent —Related forms com·po·nen·tial  /ˌkɒmpəˈnɛnʃəl/ Show Spelled[kom-puh-nen-shuhl] Show IPA, com·po·nen·tal, adjective com·po·nent·ed, adjective sub·com·po·nent, noun —Synonyms 1. See element. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To components Mouser Electronics Search & Buy > A Million Parts, Datasheets, No Min, Ships Same-Day www.mouser.com Allied Electronics Over 1.7 million Electronics Parts, Components and Equipment. Sponsored Results www.AlliedElec.com Word Origin & History component 1645, from L. componentem (nom. componens ), prp. of componere "to put together" (see composite). Related: Componentry (1959). Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Medical Dictionary com·po·nent definition Pronunciation: /kəm-ˈpō-nənt, ˈkäm-ˌ, käm-ˈ/ Function: n : a constituent part exocrine and endocrine component s of the pancreas> Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary, © 2007 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source Famous Quotations component "Wit is often concise and sparkling, compressed into an ..." "Hence, a generative grammar must be a system of rules t..." "Your brain receives, stores, and processes information,..." "Families and societies are small and large versions of ..." "Religion and science ... constitute deep-rooted and anc..."

bike Return to the top

* jugum * forfend * affable * egregious bike - 6 dictionary results New Bikes Up To 60% Off Brand Name MTBs w Full Warranties Buy Direct. Save Big. Free Shipping www.BikesDirect.com Dictionary.com Free Toolbar Define Bike Instantly. Faster Page Loads With Fewer Ads. Dictionary.com bike 1    /baɪk/ Show Spelled [bahyk] Show IPA noun, verb, biked, bik·ing. –noun 1. Informal . a. a bicycle. b. a motorbike. c. a motorcycle. 2. Harness Racing . a sulky with tires like those of a bicycle. –verb (used without object) 3. to ride a bike: I bike to work. —Idiom 4. get off one's bike, Australian Informal . to lose control of oneself or become angry. Use bike in a Sentence See images of bike Search bike on the Web Origin: 1880–85, Americanism ; alter. of bicycle Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : bike bicycle, cycle, pedal, wheel, motorcycle View more related words » bike 2    /baɪk/ Show Spelled[bahyk] Show IPA –noun Scot. and North England . 1. a colony, nest, or swarm of wild bees, wasps, or hornets. 2. a teeming crowd; swarm of people. Origin: 1250–1300; ME, equiv. to *bi bee (< ON bȳ bee1 ) + *yeke, OE gēoc help, safety Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To bike World English Dictionary bike 1 (baɪk) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n , — vb 1. informal bicycle short for motorcycle 2. slang ( Brit ) on your bike away you go 3. slang ( Austral ), ( NZ ) get off one's bike to lose one's self-control — n 4. slang a promiscuous woman: the town bike bike or ( Scot ) byke 2 (bəɪk, baɪk, bəɪk, baɪk) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n 1. a wasps' or bees' nest — vb 2. to swarm [C14: of uncertain origin] byke or ( Scot ) byke 2 — n — vb [C14: of uncertain origin] Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History bike 1882, Amer.Eng., shortened and altered form of bicycle. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Slang Dictionary bike definition 1. n. a motorcycle; a bicycle. : You have to wear a helmet with a bike that size, don't you? Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions by Richard A. Spears.Fourth Edition. Copyright 2007. Published by McGraw Hill. Cite This Source Famous Quotations bike definition "It is in the small things we see it. The child's f..." "bike downtown, stick out tongues at the Catholics. "He didn't riot. He got on his bike and looked for work."

maintenance Return to the top

* Breakdown maintenance, where equipment is run down to its breaking down and maintenance is carried out after the breakdown. This may include replacement of complete equipment or some main parts of the equipment. It is only to enhance the useful life of a particular equipment that preventive and corrective maintenance are followed. * Preventive maintenance, where equipment is maintained before break down occurs. This type of maintenance has many different variations and is subject of various researches to determine best and most efficient way to maintain equipment. Recent studies have shown that Preventive maintenance is effective in preventing age related failures of the equipment. For random failure patterns which amount to 80% of the failure patterns, condition monitoring proves to be effective.This type of maintenance is carried out to prevent breakdown during operational time by maintaining it in off time. * Corrective maintenance, where equipment is maintained after break down. This maintenance is often more expensive because worn equipment can damage other parts and cause multiple damage. The corrective maintenance is different than breakdown maintenance as during breakdown maintenance we intentionally run the equipment to failure/breakdown while in corrective maintenance we attend to a particular problem and aim to get back the equipment to run operationally at earliest. [edit] Preventive maintenance Main article: Preventive maintenance Preventive maintenance is maintenance performed in an attempt to avoid failures, unnecessary production loss and HSE violation. As equipment cannot be maintained at all times, some way is needed to decide when it is proper to perform maintenance. Normally, this is done by deciding some inspection/maintenance intervals, and sticking to this interval more or less Unaffected by what you find during these activities. The result of this is that most of the maintenance performed is unnecessary;[citation needed] it even adds substantial wear to the equipment. Also, you have no guarantee that the equipment will continue to work even if you are maintaining it according to the maintenance plan. The effectiveness of a preventive maintenance schedule depends on the RCM analysis which it was based on, and the ground rules used for cost-effectivity.[1] [edit] Corrective maintenance Repair shop Main article: Corrective maintenance Corrective maintenance is probably the most commonly used approach, but it is easy to see its limitations. When equipment fails, it often leads to downtime in production. In most cases this is costly business. Also, if the equipment needs to be replaced, the cost of replacing it alone can be substantial. It is also important to consider health, safety and environment (HSE) issues related to malfunctioning equipment. Corrective maintenance can be defined as the maintenance which is required when an item has failed or worn out, to bring it back to working order. Corrective maintenance is carried out on all items where the consequences of failure or wearing out are not significant and the cost of this maintenance is not greater than preventive maintenance. Maintenance may refer to: * Biological science o Maintenance respiration o Maintenance of an organism * Non-technical maintenance: o High-maintenance, slang expression o Child support or alimony, also called spousal support o Champerty, assistance provided to a litigant by one who does not have a bona-fide interest in a lawsuit o Feudal maintenance, system of funding armies * Technical maintenance: o Aircraft maintenance + Maintenance, repair and operations o Car maintenance o Railroad track maintenance o Maintenance of IT Systems o Software maintenance o Software maintainer * General types of technical maintenance: o Preventive maintenance + Condition-based maintenance + Predictive maintenance o Corrective maintenance o Reliability centered maintenance o Value driven maintenance

oil change Return to the top

Motor oil, or engine oil, is an oil used for lubrication of various internal combustion engines. While the main function is to lubricate moving parts, motor oil also cleans, inhibits corrosion, improves sealing, and cools the engine by carrying heat away from moving parts.[1] Motor oils are derived from petroleum-based and non-petroleum-synthesized chemical compounds. Motor oils today are mainly blended by using base oils composed of hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins (PAO), and polyinternal olefins[2] (PIO), thus organic compounds consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen. The base oils of some high-performance motor oils contain up to 20 wt.-% of esters.[3] Contents [hide] * 1 Use * 2 Other oils * 3 Non-vehicle oils * 4 Properties * 5 Grades o 5.1 Single-grade o 5.2 Multi-grade o 5.3 Turbine * 6 Standards o 6.1 American Petroleum Institute o 6.2 ILSAC o 6.3 ACEA o 6.4 JASO o 6.5 OEM standards divergence * 7 Other additives * 8 Synthetic oil and synthetic blends * 9 Bio-based oils * 10 Maintenance * 11 Future * 12 Re-refined motor oil * 13 Brands and manufacturers * 14 Packaging * 15 References * 16 External links [edit] Use Motor oil is a lubricant used in internal combustion engines. These include motor or road vehicles such as cars and motorcycles, heavier vehicles such as buses and commercial vehicles, non-road vehicles such as go-karts, snowmobiles, boats (fixed engine installations and outboards), lawn mowers, large agricultural and construction equipment, locomotives and aircraft, and static engines such as electrical generators. In engines, there are parts which move against each other causing friction which wastes otherwise useful power by converting the energy to heat. Contact between moving surfaces also wears away those parts, which could lead to lower efficiency and degradation of the engine. This increases fuel consumption, decreases power output and can, in extreme cases lead to engine failure. Lubricating oil creates a separating film between surfaces of adjacent moving parts to minimize direct contact between them, decreasing heat caused by friction and reducing wear, thus protecting the engine. In use, motor oil transfers heat through convection as it flows through the engine by means of air flow over the surface of the oil pan, an oil cooler and through the build up of oil gases evacuated by the Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system. In petrol (gasoline) engines, the top piston ring can expose the motor oil to temperatures of 320 °F (160 °C). In diesel engines the top ring can expose the oil to temperatures over 600 °F (315 °C). Motor oils with higher viscosity indices thin less at these higher temperatures. Coating metal parts with oil also keeps them from being exposed to oxygen, inhibiting oxidation at elevated operating temperatures preventing rust or corrosion. Corrosion inhibitors may also be added to the motor oil. Many motor oils also have detergents and dispersants added to help keep the engine clean and minimize oil sludge build-up. The oil is able to trap soot from combustion in itself, rather than leaving it deposited on the internal surfaces. It is a combination of this, and some singeing that turns used oil black after some running. Rubbing of metal engine parts inevitably produces some microscopic metallic particles from the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against moving parts, causing wear. Because particles accumulate in the oil, it is typically circulated through an oil filter to remove harmful particles. An oil pump, a vane or gear pump powered by the engine, pumps the oil throughout the engine, including the oil filter. Oil filters can be a full flow or bypass type. In the crankcase of a vehicle engine, motor oil lubricates rotating or sliding surfaces between the crankshaft journal bearings (main bearings and big-end bearings), and rods connecting the pistons to the crankshaft. The oil collects in an oil pan, or sump, at the bottom of the crankcase. In some small engines such as lawn mower engines, dippers on the bottoms of connecting rods dip into the oil at the bottom and splash it around the crankcase as needed to lubricate parts inside. In modern vehicle engines, the oil pump takes oil from the oil pan and sends it through the oil filter into oil galleries, from which the oil lubricates the main bearings holding the crankshaft up at the main journals and camshaft bearings operating the valves. In typical modern vehicles, oil pressure-fed from the oil galleries to the main bearings enters holes in the main journals of the crankshaft. From these holes in the main journals, the oil moves through passageways inside the crankshaft to exit holes in the rod journals to lubricate the rod bearings and connecting rods. Some simpler designs relied on these rapidly moving parts to splash and lubricate the contacting surfaces between the piston rings and interior surfaces of the cylinders. However, in modern designs, there are also passageways through the rods which carry oil from the rod bearings to the rod-piston connections and lubricate the contacting surfaces between the piston rings and interior surfaces of the cylinders. This oil film also serves as a seal between the piston rings and cylinder walls to separate the combustion chamber in the cylinder head from the crankcase. The oil then drips back down into the oil pan.[4][5] Motor Oil is also use for engine cleaning. [edit] Other oils Other types of oil used in automotive applications include Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF) and gear oil that are used in manual transmissions, transfer cases and differentials. [edit] Non-vehicle oils Other kinds of motors also use motor oil, as well as engines that are not in vehicles such as those for electrical generators. Examples include 4-stroke or 4-cycle internal combustion engines such as those used in many "walk behind" lawn mowers and other engines, and special 2-stroke oil used in 2-stroke or 2-cycle internal combustion engines such as those used in various smaller engines like motor scooters, snow blowers, chain saws, toy engines like those in model airplanes, certain gardening equipment like weed/grass trimmers, leaf blowers, soil cultivators, etc. Often, the applications are not exposed to as wide a temperature range in use as vehicles, so these oils may be single grade or have less viscosity index improver. In older 2-stroke engines, oil may be pre-mixed with the gasoline or fuel, often in a rich gasoline:oil ratio of 25:1, 40:1 or 50:1, and burned in use along with the gasoline. Modern two-stroke engines used in boats and motorcycles, will have a more economical oil injection system rather than oil pre-mixed into the gasoline. In addition to the 2-cycle oil used if they have gasoline engines, chain saws also separately use "bar and chain oil" for lubricating and cooling the surfaces where the cutting chain moves around the bar. Other examples of mechanical equipment often using oil include oil-driven compressors, vacuum pumps, diffusion pumps, sewing machines and other devices with motors, oil-driven hydraulic equipment, and turbines. The oil properties will vary according to the individual needs of these devices. Non-smoking 2-cycle oils are composed of esters or polyglycols. Environmental legislations for leisure marine applications, especially in Europe, enhanced the use of ester-based two cycle oils. [edit] Properties Most motor oils are made from a heavier, thicker petroleum hydrocarbon base stock derived from crude oil, with additives to improve certain properties. The bulk of a typical motor oil consists of hydrocarbons with between 18 and 34 carbon atoms per molecule.[6] One of the most important properties of motor oil in maintaining a lubricating film between moving parts is its viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid can be thought of as its "thickness" or a measure of its resistance to flow. The viscosity must be high enough to maintain a lubricating film, but low enough that the oil can flow around the engine parts under all conditions. The viscosity index is a measure of how much the oil's viscosity changes as temperature changes. A higher viscosity index indicates the viscosity changes less with temperature than a lower viscosity index. Motor oil must be able to flow adequately at the lowest temperature it is expected to experience in order to minimize metal to metal contact between moving parts upon starting up the engine. The pour point defined first this property of motor oil, as defined by ASTM D97 as "...an index of the lowest temperature of its utility..." for a given application,[7] but the "cold cranking simulator" (CCS, see ASTM D5293-08) and "Mini-Rotary Viscometer" (MRV, see ASTM D3829-02(2007), ASTM D4684-08) are today the properties required in motor oil specs and define the SAE classifications. Oil is largely composed of hydrocarbons which can burn if ignited. Still another important property of motor oil is its flash point, the lowest temperature at which the oil gives off vapors which can ignite. It is dangerous for the oil in a motor to ignite and burn, so a high flash point is desirable. At a petroleum refinery, fractional distillation separates a motor oil fraction from other crude oil fractions, removing the more volatile components, and therefore increasing the oil's flash point (reducing its tendency to burn). Another manipulated property of motor oil is its Total Base Number (TBN), which is a measurement of the reserve alkalinity of an oil, meaning its ability to neutralize acids. The resulting quantity is determined as mg KOH/ (gram of lubricant). Analogously, Total Acid Number (TAN) is the measure of a lubricant's acidity. Other tests include zinc, phosphorus, or sulfur content, and testing for excessive foaming. The NOACK volatility (ASTM D-5800) Test determines the physical evaporation loss of lubricants in high temperature service. A maximum of 15% evaporation loss is allowable to meet API SL and ILSAC GF-3 specifications. Some automotive OEM oil specifications require lower than 10%. [edit] Grades Range of motor oils on display in Kuwait The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has established a numerical code system for grading motor oils according to their viscosity characteristics. SAE viscosity gradings include the following, from low to high viscosity: 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50 or 60. The numbers 0, 5, 10, 15 and 25 are suffixed with the letter W, designating their "winter" (not "weight") or cold-start viscosity, at lower temperature. The number 20 comes with or without a W, depending on whether it is being used to denote a cold or hot viscosity grade. The document SAE J300 defines the viscometrics related to these grades. Kinematic viscosity is graded by measuring the time it takes for a standard amount of oil to flow through a standard orifice, at standard temperatures. The longer it takes, the higher the viscosity and thus higher SAE code. Note that the SAE has a separate viscosity rating system for gear, axle, and manual transmission oils, SAE J306, which should not be confused with engine oil viscosity. The higher numbers of a gear oil (eg 75W-140) do not mean that it has higher viscosity than an engine oil. [edit] Single-grade A single-grade engine oil, as defined by SAE J300, cannot use a polymeric Viscosity Index Improver (also referred to as Viscosity Modifier) additive. SAE J300 has established eleven viscosity grades, of which six are considered Winter-grades and given a W designation. The 11 viscosity grades are 0W, 5W, 10W, 15W, 20W, 25W, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60. These numbers are often referred to as the 'weight' of a motor oil. For single winter grade oils, the dynamic viscosity is measured at different cold temperatures, specified in J300 depending on the viscosity grade, in units of mPa·s or the equivalent older non-SI units, centipoise (abbreviated cP), using two different test methods. They are the Cold Cranking Simulator (ASTM D5293) and the Mini-Rotary Viscometer (ASTM D4684). Based on the coldest temperature the oil passes at, that oil is graded as SAE viscosity grade 0W, 5W, 10W, 15W, 20W, or 25W. The lower the viscosity grade, the lower the temperature the oil can pass. For example, if an oil passes at the specifications for 10W and 5W, but fails for 0W, then that oil must be labeled as an SAE 5W. That oil cannot be labeled as either 0W or 10W. For single non-winter grade oils, the kinematic viscosity is measured at a temperature of 100 °C (212 °F) in units of mm²/s or the equivalent older non-SI units, centistokes (abbreviated cSt). Based on the range of viscosity the oil falls in at that temperature, the oil is graded as SAE viscosity grade 20, 30, 40, 50, or 60. In addition, for SAE grades 20, 30, and 40, a minimum viscosity measured at 150 °C (302 °F) and at a high-shear rate is also required. The higher the viscosity, the higher the SAE viscosity grade is. For some applications, such as when the temperature ranges in use are not very wide, single-grade motor oil is satisfactory; for example, lawn mower engines, industrial applications, and vintage or classic cars. [edit] Multi-grade The temperature range the oil is exposed to in most vehicles can be wide, ranging from cold temperatures in the winter before the vehicle is started up, to hot operating temperatures when the vehicle is fully warmed up in hot summer weather. A specific oil will have high viscosity when cold and a lower viscosity at the engine's operating temperature. The difference in viscosities for most single-grade oil is too large between the extremes of temperature. To bring the difference in viscosities closer together, special polymer additives called viscosity index improvers, or VIIs are added to the oil. These additives are used to make the oil a multi-grade motor oil, though it is possible to have a multi-grade oil without the use of VIIs. The idea is to cause the multi-grade oil to have the viscosity of the base grade when cold and the viscosity of the second grade when hot. This enables one type of oil to be generally used all year. In fact, when multi-grades were initially developed, they were frequently described as all-season oil. The viscosity of a multi-grade oil still varies logarithmically with temperature, but the slope representing the change is lessened. This slope representing the change with temperature depends on the nature and amount of the additives to the base oil. The SAE designation for multi-grade oils includes two viscosity grades; for example, 10W-30 designates a common multi-grade oil. The two numbers used are individually defined by SAE J300 for single-grade oils. Therefore, an oil labeled as 10W-30 must pass the SAE J300 viscosity grade requirement for both 10W and 30, and all limitations placed on the viscosity grades (for example, a 10W-30 oil must fail the J300 requirements at 5W). Also, if an oil does not contain any VIIs, and can pass as a multi-grade, that oil can be labelled with either of the two SAE viscosity grades. For example, a very simple multi-grade oil that can be easily made with modern base oils without any VII is a 20W-20. This oil can be labeled as 20W-20, 20W, or 20. Note, if any VIIs are used however, then that oil cannot be labeled as a single grade. The real-world ability of an oil to crank or pump when cold is potentially diminished soon after it is put into service. The motor oil grade and viscosity to be used in a given vehicle is specified by the manufacturer of the vehicle (although some modern European cars now have no viscosity requirement), but can vary from country to country when climatic or fuel efficiency constraints come into play. [edit] Turbine Turbine motor oils are designed somewhat differently than reciprocating engine oils traditionally used in automobiles. Deposit control and corrosion are not significant issues when formulating a turbine oil, and the shear stresses that turbine oils are exposed to are minimal in light of the fact that turbines are naturally balanced rotating machines unlike reciprocating engines. Turbine oils tend to have the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) VG range 32, 46, and 68 (cSt at 40 °C/104 °F), and make extensive use of diester, polyolester, polyalphaolefin and Group II as base stock due to the high temperatures they must withstand. Some jet turbine oils contain an amount of polyglycols. Varnish is one of the most problematic contaminants, leading to sticking components, reduced oil flow and increased wear. Most routine oil analysis tests cannot determine the formation of varnish. The most widely accepted process for measuring varnish formation is with Membrane Patch Colorimetry testing although the ultra centrifuge test is also run by a few laboratories. In most aviation gas turbine applications, peak lubricant temperatures are not reached during engine operation, but after shutdown, when heat has been able to migrate from the combustor cans and the compressors into the regions of the engine with lubricated bearings and gearboxes. The gas flow associated with running the turbine provides significant convective cooling that disappears when the engine is shut down, leaving residual heat that causes temperatures within the turbine to rise dramatically, an often-misunderstood phenomenon. [edit] Standards [edit] American Petroleum Institute The American Petroleum Institute (API) sets minimum for performance standards for lubricants. Motor oil is used for the lubrication, cooling, and cleaning of internal combustion engines. Motor oil may be composed of a lubricant base stock only in the case of non-detergent oil, or a lubricant base stock plus additives to improve the oil's detergency, extreme pressure performance, and ability to inhibit corrosion of engine parts. Lubricant base stocks are categorized into five groups by the API. Group I base stocks are composed of fractionally distilled petroleum which is further refined with solvent extraction processes to improve certain properties such as oxidation resistance and to remove wax. Group II base stocks are composed of fractionally distilled petroleum that has been hydrocracked to further refine and purify it. Group III base stocks have similar characteristics to Group II base stocks, except that Group III base stocks have higher viscosity indexes. Group III base stocks are produced by further hydrocracking of Group II base stocks, or of hydroisomerized slack wax, (a byproduct of the dewaxing process). Group IV base stock are polyalphaolefins (PAOs). Group V is a catch-all group for any base stock not described by Groups I to IV. Examples of group V base stocks include polyol esters, polyalkylene glycols (PAG oils), and perfluoropolyalkylethers (PFPAEs). Groups I and II are commonly referred to as mineral oils, group III is typically referred to as synthetic (except in Germany and Japan, where they must not be called synthetic) and group IV is a synthetic oil. Group V base oils are so diverse that there is no catch-all description. The API service classes[8] have two general classifications: S for "service" (originating from spark ignition) (typical passenger cars and light trucks using gasoline engines), and C for "commercial" (originating from compression ignition) (typical diesel equipment). Engine oil which has been tested and meets the API standards may display the API Service Symbol (also known as the "Donut") with the service designation on containers sold to oil users.[8] The API oil classification structure has eliminated specific support for wet-clutch motorcycle applications in their descriptors, and API SJ and newer oils are referred to be specific to automobile and light truck use. Accordingly, motorcycle oils are subject to their own unique standards. The latest API service standard designation is SN for gasoline automobile and light-truck engines. The SN standard refers to a group of laboratory and engine tests, including the latest series for control of high-temperature deposits. Current API service categories include SN,SM, SL and SJ for gasoline engines. All previous service designations are obsolete, although motorcycle oils commonly still use the SF/SG standard. All the current gasoline categories (including the obsolete SH), have placed limitations on the phosphorus content for certain SAE viscosity grades (the xW-20, xW-30) due to the chemical poisoning that phosphorus has on catalytic converters. Phosphorus is a key anti-wear component in motor oil and is usually found in motor oil in the form of Zinc dithiophosphate. Each new API category has placed successively lower phosphorus and zinc limits, and thus has created a controversial issue obsolescing oils needed for older engines, especially engines with sliding (flat/cleave) tappets. API, and ILSAC, which represents most of the worlds major automobile/engine manufactures, states API SM/ILSAC GF-4 is fully backwards compatible, and it is noted that one of the engine tests required for API SM, the Sequence IVA, is a sliding tappet design to test specifically for cam wear protection. However, not everyone is in agreement with backwards compatibility, and in addition, there are special situations, such as "performance" engines or fully race built engines, where the engine protection requirements are above and beyond API/ILSAC requirements. Because of this, there are specialty oils out in the market place with higher than API allowed phosphorus levels. Most engines built before 1985 have the flat/cleave bearing style systems of construction, which is sensitive to reducing zinc and phosphorus. Example; in API SG rated oils, this was at the 1200-1300 ppm level for zincs and phosphorus, where the current SM is under 600 ppm. This reduction in anti-wear chemicals in oil has caused pre-mature failures of camshafts and other high pressure bearings in many older automobiles and has been blamed for pre-mature failure of the oil pump drive/cam position sensor gear that is meshed with camshaft gear in some modern engines. There are six diesel engine service designations which are current: CJ-4, CI-4, CH-4, CG-4, CF-2, and CF. Some manufacturers continue to use obsolete designations such as CC for small or stationary diesel engines. In addition, API created a separated CI-4 PLUS designation in conjunction with CJ-4 and CI-4 for oils that meet certain extra requirements, and this marking is located in the lower portion of the API Service Symbol "Donut". It is possible for an oil to conform to both the gasoline and diesel standards. In fact, it is the norm for all diesel rated engine oils to carry the "corresponding" gasoline specification. For example, API CJ-4 will almost always list either SL or SM, API CI-4 with SL, API CH-4 with SJ, and so on. [edit] ILSAC The International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee (ILSAC) also has standards for motor oil. Introduced in 2004, GF-4[9] applies to SAE 0W-20, 5W-20, 0W-30, 5W-30, and 10W-30 viscosity grade oils. A new set of specifications, GF-5, [10] took effect in October of 2010. The industry has one year to convert their oils to GF-5 and in September of 2011, ILSAC will no longer offer licensing for GF-4. In general, ILSAC works with API in creating the newest gasoline oil specification, with ILSAC adding an extra requirement of fuel economy testing to their specification. For GF-4, a Sequence VIB Fuel Economy Test (ASTM D6837) is required that is not required in API service category SM. A key new test for GF-4, which is also required for API SM, is the Sequence IIIG, which involves running a 3.8 L (232 in³), GM 3.8 L V-6 at 125 hp (93 kW), 3,600 rpm, and 150 °C (300 °F) oil temperature for 100 hours. These are much more severe conditions than any API-specified oil was designed for: cars which typically push their oil temperature consistently above 100 °C (212 °F) are most turbocharged engines, along with most engines of European or Japanese origin, particularly small capacity, high power output. The IIIG test is about 50% more difficult[11] than the previous IIIF test, used in GF-3 and API SL oils. Engine oils bearing the API starburst symbol since 2005 are ILSAC GF-4 compliant.[12] To help consumers recognize that an oil meets the ILSAC requirements, API developed a "starburst" certification mark. :-> [edit] ACEA The ACEA (Association des Constructeurs Européens d'Automobiles) performance/quality classifications A3/A5 tests used in Europe are arguably more stringent than the API and ILSAC standards. CEC (The Co-ordinating European Council) is the development body for fuel and lubricant testing in Europe and beyond, setting the standards via their European Industry groups; ACEA, ATIEL, ATC and CONCAWE. [edit] JASO The Japanese Automotive Standards Organization (JASO) has created their own set of performance and quality standards for petrol engines of Japanese origin. For 4-stroke gasoline engines, the JASO T904 standard is used, and is particularly relevant to motorcycle engines. The JASO T904-MA and MA2 standards are designed to distinguish oils that are approved for wet clutch use, and the JASO T904-MB standard is not suitable for wet clutch use. For 2-stroke gasoline engines, the JASO M345 (FA, FB, FC) standard is used, and this refers particularly to low ash, lubricity, detergency, low smoke and exhaust blocking. These standards, especially JASO-MA and JASO-FC, are designed to address oil-requirement issues not addressed by the API service categories. [edit] OEM standards divergence By the early 1990s, many of the European original equipment manufacturer (OEM) car manufacturers felt that the direction of the American API oil standards was not compatible with the needs of a motor oil to be used in their motors. As a result many leading European motor manufacturers created and developed their own "OEM" oil standards. Probably the most well known of these are the VW50*.0* series from Volkswagen Group, and the MB22*.** from Mercedes-Benz. Other European OEM standards are from General Motors, for the Vauxhall, Opel and Saab brands, the Ford "WSS" standards, BMW Special Oils and BMW Longlife standards, Porsche, and the PSA Group of Peugeot and Citroën. General Motors also has the 4718M standard that is used for the Chevrolet Corvette, a standard that is used in North America for selected North American performance engines, with a "Use Mobil 1 only" sticker usually placed on those cars.[citation needed] In recent times, very highly specialized "extended drain" "longlife" oils have arisen, whereby, taking Volkswagen Group vehicles, a petrol engine can now go up to 2 years or 30,000 km (~18,600 mi), and a diesel engine can go up to 2 years or 50,000 km (~31,000 mi) - before requiring an oil change. Volkswagen (504.00), BMW, GM, Mercedes and PSA all have their own similar longlife oil standards.[citation needed] Another trend of today represent midSAP (sulfated ash <0,8 wt.-%) and lowSAP (sulfated ash <0,5 wt.-%) engine oil (see specifications: Renault RN 0720, FORD WSS-M2C934-A). The ACEA specifications C1 to C4 reflect the midSAP and lowSAP needs of automotive OEMs. Furthermore, virtually all European OEM standards require a long drains of 30.000 km and up by using HTHS (High Temperature, High Shear) viscosity, many around the 3.5 cP (3.5 mPa·s). In Japan, the HTHS figures are low as >2.6 mPas. Because of the real or perceived need for motor oils with unique qualities, many modern European cars will demand a specific OEM-only oil standard. As a result, they may make no reference at all to API standards, nor SAE viscosity grades. They may also make no primary reference to the ACEA standards, with the exception of being able to use a "lesser" ACEA grade oil for "emergency top-up", though this usually has strict limits, often up to a maximum of ½ a litre of non-OEM oil. [edit] Other additives In addition to the viscosity index improvers, motor oil manufacturers often include other additives such as detergents and dispersants to help keep the engine clean by minimizing sludge buildup, corrosion inhibitors, and alkaline additives to neutralize acidic oxidation products of the oil. Most commercial oils have a minimal amount of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate as an anti-wear additive to protect contacting metal surfaces with zinc and other compounds in case of metal to metal contact. The quantity of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate is limited to minimize adverse effect on catalytic converters. Another aspect for after-treatment devices is the deposition of oil ash, which increases the exhaust back pressure and reduces over time the fuel economy. The so-called "chemical box" limits today the concentrations of sulfur, ash and phosphorus (SAP). There are other additives available commercially which can be added to the oil by the user for purported additional benefit. Some of these additives include: * Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP) additives, which typically also contain calcium sulfonates, are available to consumers for additional protection under extreme-pressure conditions or in heavy duty performance situations. ZDDP and calcium additives are also added to protect motor oil from oxidative breakdown and to prevent the formation of sludge and varnish deposits. * In the 1980s and 1990s, additives with suspended PTFE particles were available e.g. "Slick50" to consumers to increase motor oil's ability to coat and protect metal surfaces. There is controversy as to the actual effectiveness of these products as they can coagulate and clog the oil filters. * Some molybdenum disulfide containing additives to lubricating oils are claimed to reduce friction, bond to metal, or have anti-wear properties. They were used in WWII in flight engines and became commercial after WWII until the 1990s. They were commercialized in the 1970s (ELF ANTAR Molygraphite) and are today still available (Liqui Moly MoS2 10 W-40, www.liqui-moly.de). * Various other extreme-pressure additives and antiwear additives. [edit] Synthetic oil and synthetic blends Synthetic lubricants were first synthesized, or man-made, in significant quantities as replacements for mineral lubricants (and fuels) by German scientists in the late 1930s and early 1940s because of their lack of sufficient quantities of crude for their (primarily military) needs. A significant factor in its gain in popularity was the ability of synthetic-based lubricants to remain fluid in the sub-zero temperatures of the Eastern front in wintertime, temperatures which caused petroleum-based lubricants to solidify owing to their higher wax content. The use of synthetic lubricants widened through the 1950s and 1960s owing to a property at the other end of the temperature spectrum, the ability to lubricate aviation engines at temperatures that caused mineral-based lubricants to break down. In the mid 1970s, synthetic motor oils were formulated and commercially applied for the first time in automotive applications. The same SAE system for designating motor oil viscosity also applies to synthetic oils. Instead of making motor oil with the conventional petroleum base, "true" synthetic oil base stocks are artificially synthesized. Synthetic oils are derived from either Group III mineral base oils, Group IV, or Group V non-mineral bases. True synthetics include classes of lubricants like synthetic esters as well as "others" like GTL (Methane Gas-to-Liquid) (Group V) and polyalpha-olefins (Group IV). Higher purity and therefore better property control theoretically means synthetic oil has good mechanical properties at extremes of high and low temperatures. The molecules are made large and "soft" enough to retain good viscosity at higher temperatures, yet branched molecular structures interfere with solidification and therefore allow flow at lower temperatures. Thus, although the viscosity still decreases as temperature increases, these synthetic motor oils have a much improved viscosity index over the traditional petroleum base. Their specially designed properties allow a wider temperature range at higher and lower temperatures and often include a lower pour point. With their improved viscosity index, true synthetic oils need little or no viscosity index improvers, which are the oil components most vulnerable to thermal and mechanical degradation as the oil ages, and thus they do not degrade as quickly as traditional motor oils. However, they still fill up with particulate matter, although at a lower rate compared to conventional oils, and the oil filter still fills and clogs up over time. So, periodic oil and filter changes should still be done with synthetic oil; but some synthetic oil suppliers suggest that the intervals between oil changes can be longer, sometimes as long as 16,000-24,000 km (10,000–15,000 mi). With improved efficiency, synthetic lubricants are designed to make wear and tear on gears far less than with petroleum-based lubricants, reduce the incidence of oil oxidation and sludge formation, and allow for "long life" extended drain intervals. Today, synthetic lubricants are available for use in modern automobiles on nearly all lubricated components, potentially with superior performance and longevity as compared to non-synthetic alternatives. Some tests[citation needed] have shown that fully synthetic oil is superior to conventional oil in many respects, providing better engine protection, performance, and better flow in cold starts than petroleum-based motor oil. [edit] Bio-based oils Bio-based oils existed prior to the development of petroleum-based oils in the 19th Century. They have become the subject of renewed interest with the advent of bio-fuels and the push for green products. The development of canola-based motor oils began in 1996 in order to pursue environmentally friendly products. Purdue University has funded a project to develop and test such oils. Test results indicate satisfactory performance from the oils tested.[13] [edit] Maintenance Oil being drained from a car In engines, there is inevitably some exposure of the oil to products of internal combustion, and microscopic coke particles from black soot accumulate in the oil during operation. Also the rubbing of metal engine parts inevitably produces some microscopic metallic particles from the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against the part surfaces causing wear. The oil filter removes many of the particles and sludge, but eventually the oil filter can become clogged, if used for extremely long periods. The motor oil and especially the additives also undergo thermal and mechanical degradation. For these reasons, the oil and the oil filter need to be periodically replaced. While there is a full industry surrounding regular oil changes and maintenance, an oil change is fairly simple and something car owners can do themselves. Some vehicle manufacturers may specify which SAE viscosity grade of oil should be used, but different viscosity motor oil may perform better based on the operating environment. Many manufacturers have varying requirements and have designations for motor oil they require to be used. Some quick oil change shops recommended intervals of 5,000 km (3,000 mi) or every 3 months which is not necessary according to many automobile manufacturers. This has led to a campaign by the California EPA against the 3,000 mile myth, promoting vehicle manufacturer's recommendations for oil change intervals over those of the oil change industry. Motor oil is changed on time in service or distance vehicle has traveled. Actual operating conditions and engine hours of operation are a more precise indicator of when to change motor oil. Also important is the quality of the oil used especially when synthetics are used (synthetics are more stable than conventional oils). Some manufactures address this (IE. BMW and VW with their respective long-live standards) while others do not. The viscosity can be adjusted for the ambient temperature change, thicker for summer heat and thinner for the winter cold. Lower viscosity oils are used in many newer American market vehicles. Time-based intervals account for the short trip driver who drives fewer miles, but builds up more contaminants. It is advised by manufacturers to not exceed their time or distance driven on a motor oil change interval. Many modern cars now list somewhat higher intervals for changing of oil and filter, with the constraint of "severe" service requiring more frequent changes with less-than ideal driving; this applies to short trips of under 16 km (10 mi), where the oil does not get to full operating temperature long enough to burn off condensation, excess fuel, and other contamination that leads to "sludge", "varnish", "acids", or other deposits. Many manufacturers have engine computer calculations to estimate the oil's condition based on the factors which degrade it such as RPMs, temperatures, and trip length; and one system adds an optical sensor for determining the clarity of the oil in the engine. These systems are commonly known as Oil Life Monitors or OLMs. In the 1970s typical cars took heavy 10W-40 oil. In the 1980s 5W-30 oils were introduced to improve fuel efficiency. A modern typical application would be Honda Motor's use of 5W-20 viscosity oil for 12,000 km (7,500 mi) while offering increased fuel efficiency. Due to many new engine designs having tolerances of a few one-thousandths of an inch, advanced oil-actuated cam and valve timing systems, many manufacturers are recommending an oil weight of 5W-20 to be used in their engines. [edit] Future A new process to break down polyethylene, a common plastic product found in many consumer containers, is used to make wax with the correct molecular properties for conversion into a lubricant, bypassing the expensive Fischer-Tropsch process. The plastic is melted and then pumped into a furnace. The heat of the furnace breaks down the molecular chains of polyethylene into wax. Finally, the wax is subjected to a catalytic process that alters the wax's molecular structure, leaving a clear oil. (Miller, et al., 2005) Biodegradable Motor Oils based on esters or hydrocarbon-ester blends appeared in the 1990s followed by formulations beginning in 2000 which respond to the bio-no-tox-criteria of the European preparations directive (EC/1999/45).[14] This means, that they not only are biodegradable according to OECD 301x test methods, but also the aquatic toxicities (fish, algae, daphnie) are each above 100 mg/L. Another class of base oils suited for engine oils represents the polyalkylene glycols. They offer zero-ash, bio-no-tox properties and lean burn characteristics.[15] [edit] Re-refined motor oil The oil in a motor oil product does not break down or burn as it is used in an engine—it simply gets contaminated with particles and chemicals that make it a less effective lubricant. Re-refining cleans the contaminants and used additives out of the dirty oil. From there, this clean “base stock” is blended with some virgin base stock and a new additives package to make a finished lubricant product that can be just as effective as lubricants made with all virgin oil.[16] The US Environmental Protection Agency defines re-refined products as containing at least 25% re-refined base stock,[17] but other standards are significantly higher. The California State public contract code define a re-refined motor oil as one that contains at least 70% re-refined base stock.[18]

valve timing Return to the top

In a piston engine, the valve timing is the precise timing of the opening and closing of the valves. In four-stroke cycle engines and some two-stroke cycle engines, the valve timing is controlled by the camshaft. It can be varied by modifying the camshaft, or it can be varied during engine operation by the relatively new technology of variable valve timing. It is also affected by the adjustment of the valve mechanism, and particularly by the tappet clearance; This variation is normally unwanted. Many two-stroke cycle and all wankel engines do not have a camshaft or valves, and the port timing can only be varied by machining the ports. Some supercharged two-stroke diesel engines do however have a cylinder head and camshaft similar to a four-stroke cycle engine. In a steam engine, the control of the valve timing is an important part of the operation of the engine. See valve gear, and also Walschaerts valve gear, Berry accelerator valve gear, Baker valve gear, Woolf valve gear, Caprotti valve gear, Corliss valve gear. [edit] See also * Four-stroke cycle#Valve Timing. * Cylinder head porting.

chain Return to the top

chain    /tʃeɪn/ Show Spelled[cheyn] Show IPA –noun 1. a series of objects connected one after the other, usually in the form of a series of metal rings passing through one another, used either for various purposes requiring a flexible tie with high tensile strength, as for hauling, supporting, or confining, or in various ornamental and decorative forms. 2. Often, chains. something that binds or restrains; bond: the chain of timidity; the chains of loyalty. 3. chains, a. shackles or fetters: to place a prisoner in chains. b. bondage; servitude: to live one's life in chains. c. Nautical . (in a sailing vessel) the area outboard at the foot of the shrouds of a mast: the customary position of the leadsman in taking soundings. d. tire chain. 4. a series of things connected or following in succession: a chain of events. 5. a range of mountains. 6. a number of similar establishments, as banks, theaters, or hotels, under one ownership or management. 7. Chemistry . two or more atoms of the same element, usually carbon, attached as in a chain. Compare ring1 ( def. 17 ) . 8. Surveying, Civil Engineering . a. a distance-measuring device consisting of a chain of 100 links of equal length, having a total length either of 66 ft. (20 m) (Gunter's chain or surveyor's chain) or of 100 ft. (30 m) (engineer's chain). b. a unit of length equal to either of these. c. a graduated steel tape used for distance measurements. Abbreviation: ch 9. Mathematics . totally ordered set. 10. Football . a chain 10 yd. (9 m) in length for determining whether a first down has been earned. –verb (used with object) 11. to fasten or secure with a chain: to chain a dog to a post. 12. to confine or restrain: His work chained him to his desk. 13. Surveying . to measure (a distance on the ground) with a chain or tape. 14. Computers . to link (related items, as records in a file or portions of a program) together, esp. so that items can be run in sequence. 15. to make (a chain stitch or series of chain stitches), as in crocheting. –verb (used without object) 16. to form or make a chain. —Idioms 17. drag the chain, Australian Slang . to lag behind or shirk one's fair share of work. 18. in the chains, Nautical . standing outboard on the channels or in some similar place to heave the lead to take soundings. Use chain in a Sentence See images of chain Search chain on the Web Origin: 1250–1300; ME chayne < OF chaeine < L catēna fetter; see catena —Related forms chainless, adjective chainlike, adjective in·ter·chain, verb (used with object) un·chained, adjective —Synonyms 4. sequence, succession, train, set. Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : chain concatenation, chemical chain, chain of mountains, mountain chain, mountain range View more related words » Chain Definition Find Definitions For Any Word.Get Your Free Dictionary.com Toolbar. Dictionary.com Chain    /tʃeɪn/ Show Spelled[cheyn] Show IPA –noun Sir Ernst Boris  /ɜrnst, ɛrnst/ Show Spelled[urnst, ernst] Show IPA, 1906–79, English biochemist, born in Germany: Nobel prize for medicine 1945. totally ordered set   –noun Mathematics . a set in which a relation, as “less than or equal to,” holds for all pairs of elements of the set. Also called chain, linearly ordered set, simply ordered set. Compare partially ordered set, well-ordered set. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To chain World English Dictionary chain (tʃeɪn) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n 1. a flexible length of metal links, used for confining, connecting, pulling, etc, or in jewellery 2. ( usually plural ) anything that confines, fetters, or restrains: the chains of poverty 3. ( usually plural ) Also called: snow chains a set of metal links that fit over the tyre of a motor vehicle to increase traction and reduce skidding on an icy surface 4. a. a number of establishments such as hotels, shops, etc, having the same owner or management b. ( as modifier ): a chain store 5. a series of related or connected facts, events, etc 6. a series of deals in which each depends on a purchaser selling before being able to buy 7. See (as an example) sorites (of reasoning) a sequence of arguments each of which takes the conclusion of the preceding as a premise 8. Also called: Gunter's chain a unit of length equal to 22 yards 9. Also called: engineer's chain a unit of length equal to 100 feet 10. chem open chain See also ring two or more atoms or groups bonded together so that the configuration of the resulting molecule, ion, or radical resembles a chain 11. geography a series of natural features, esp approximately parallel mountain ranges 12. informal ( Austral ), ( NZ ) off the chain free from responsibility 13. informal jerk someone's chain , yank someone's chain to tease, mislead, or harass someone — vb (often foll by up ) 14. surveying to measure with a chain or tape 15. to confine, tie, or make fast with or as if with a chain 16. to sew using chain stitch [C13: from Old French chaine, ultimately from Latin; see catena ] Chain (tʃeɪn) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n Sir Ernst Boris. 1906--79, British biochemist, born in Germany: purified and adapted penicillin for clinical use; with Fleming and Florey shared the Nobel prize for physiology or medicine 1945 Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History chain c.1300, from O.Fr. chaeine , from L. catena "chain," from PIE base *kat- "to twist, twine." The verb is attested from late 14c. Chain of stores is Amer.Eng., 1846. Chain letter first recorded 1906. "In 1896, Miss Audrey Griffin, of Hurstville, New South Wales initiated a 'chain letter' with the object of obtaining 1,000,000 used postage stamps." ["Daily Chronicle," July 27, 1906] Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Medical Dictionary chain definition Pronunciation: /ˈchān/ Function: n , often attrib 1 : a series of things (as bacteria) linked, connected, or associated together 2 : a number of atoms or chemical groups united like links in a chain Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary, © 2007 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source chain (chān) n. 1. A group of atoms covalently bonded in a spatial configuration like links in a chain. 2. A linear arrangement of living things such as cells or bacteria. Chain (chān), Ernst Boris . 1906-1979. German-born British biochemist. He shared a 1945 Nobel Prize for isolating and purifying penicillin, discovered in 1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. Cite This Source Science Dictionary chain (chān) Pronunciation Key A group of atoms, often of the same element, bound together in a line, branched line, or ring to form a molecule. ◇ In a straight chain , each of the constituent atoms is attached to other single atoms, not to groups of atoms. ◇ In a branched chain , side groups are attached to the chain. ◇ In a closed chain , the atoms are arranged in the shape of a ring. Chain, Sir Ernst Boris 1906-1979. German-born British bacteriologist who, with Howard Florey, developed and purified penicillin in 1939. For this work, they shared a 1945 Nobel Prize with Alexander Fleming, who first discovered the antibiotic in 1928. The American Heritage® Science Dictionary Copyright © 2002. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved. Cite This Source Slang Dictionary chain(saw) definition 1. tv. to destroy something; to cut something up severely. : The senatorial committee tried to chainsaw the nominee, but the full senate voted for confirmation. Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions by Richard A. Spears.Fourth Edition. Copyright 2007. Published by McGraw Hill. Cite This Source chain(-smoke) definition 1. in. to smoke cigarette after cigarette. (As if each cigarette were a link in a chain.) : I never wanted to chain-smoke, but I got addicted. Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions by Richard A. Spears.Fourth Edition. Copyright 2007. Published by McGraw Hill. Cite This Source Computing Dictionary chain definition 1. (From BASIC's "CHAIN" statement) To pass control to a child or successor without going through the operating system command interpreter that invoked you. The state of the parent program is lost and there is no returning to it. Though this facility used to be common on memory-limited microcomputers and is still widely supported for backward compatibility, the jargon usage is semi-obsolescent; in particular, Unix calls this exec. Compare with the more modern " subshell". 2. A series of linked data areas within an operating system or application program. "Chain rattling" is the process of repeatedly running through the linked data areas searching for one which is of interest. The implication is that there are many links in the chain. 3. A possibly infinite, non-decreasing sequence of elements of some total ordering, S x0 <= x1 <= x2 ... A chain satisfies: for all x,y in S, x <= y \/ y <= x. I.e. any two elements of a chain are related. ("<=" is written in LaTeX as \sqsubseteq). [ Jargon File] (1995-02-03) The Free On-line Dictionary of Computing, © Denis Howe 2010 http://foldoc.org Cite This Source Bible Dictionary Chain definition (1.) A part of the insignia of office. A chain of gold was placed about Joseph's neck (Gen. 41:42); and one was promised to Daniel (5:7). It is used as a symbol of sovereignty (Ezek. 16:11). The breast-plate of the high-priest was fastened to the ephod by golden chains (Ex. 39:17, 21). (2.) It was used as an ornament (Prov. 1:9; Cant. 1:10). The Midianites adorned the necks of their camels with chains (Judg. 8:21, 26). (3.) Chains were also used as fetters wherewith prisoners were bound (Judg. 16:21; 2 Sam. 3:34; 2 Kings 25:7; Jer. 39:7). Paul was in this manner bound to a Roman soldier (Acts 28:20; Eph. 6:20; 2 Tim. 1:16). Sometimes, for the sake of greater security, the prisoner was attached by two chains to two soldiers, as in the case of Peter (Acts 12:6). Easton's 1897 Bible Dictionary Cite This Source Idioms & Phrases chain In addition to the idioms beginning with chain, also see ball and chain; pull someone's chain. The American Heritage® Dictionary of Idioms by Christine Ammer. Copyright © 1997. Published by Houghton Mifflin. Cite This Source Famous Quotations chain "The banners flashing through the trees Make their ..." "To one who is accustomed to thinking a lot, every new t..." "If there is a species which is more maltreated than chi..." "There is not any present moment that is unconnected wit..." "O thou day o' th' world, Chain mine armed neck, le..."

fork Return to the top

As a piece of cutlery or kitchenware, a fork is a tool consisting of a handle with several narrow tines on one end. The fork, as an eating utensil, has been a feature primarily of the West, whereas in East Asia chopsticks have been more prevalent. Today, forks are increasingly available throughout East Asia. The utensil (usually metal) is used to lift food to the mouth or to hold food in place while cooking or cutting it. Food can be lifted either by spearing it on the tines, or by holding it on top of the tines, which are often curved slightly. For this latter function, in the American style of fork etiquette, the fork is held with tines curving up; however, in continental style, the fork is held with the tines curving down.[citation needed] A fork is also shaped in the form of a trident but curved at the joint of the handle to the points. Contents [hide] * 1 History * 2 Types of forks o 2.1 Novelty forks * 3 See also * 4 References * 5 Further reading * 6 External links [edit] History Bronze forks made in Iran during the 8th or 9th century. The word 'fork' is derived from the Latin furca, meaning "pitchfork." The ancient Greeks used[1] the fork as a serving utensil, and it is also mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, in the Book of I Samuel 2:13 ("The custom of the priests with the people was that when any man offered sacrifice, the priest’s servant came, while the fresh flesh was boiling, with a fork of three teeth in his hand..."), however, it was not commonly used in Western Europe until the 10th century. Bone forks had been found in the burial site of Qijia culture as well as later Chinese dynasties' tombs.[2][clarification needed] The Romans used forks and there are many examples of Roman forks on display in museums around Europe.[3] Examples of these forks date from the 2nd century A.D.[4] Before the fork was introduced, Westerners were reliant on the spoon and knife as the only eating utensils. Thus, people would largely eat food with their hands, calling for a common spoon when required. Members of the aristocracy would sometimes be accustomed to manners considered more proper and hold two knives at meals and use them both to cut and transfer food to the mouth, using the spoon for soups and broth.[citation needed] The earliest forks usually had only two tines, but those with numerous tines caught on quickly. The tines on these implements were straight, meaning the fork could only be used for spearing food and not for scooping it. The fork allowed meat to be easily held in place while being cut. The fork also allowed one to spike a piece of meat and shake off any undesired excess of sauce or liquid before consuming it. Wider use of the table fork in Western Europe was facilitated by two Byzantine imperial princesses who married into the Western aristocracy: the Empress Theophanu, wife of Emperor Otto II, in 972, and the Dogaressa Teodora Anna Dukaina Selvo, wife of the Doge of Venice Domenico Selvo, in 1075.[citation needed] By the 11th century, the table fork had made its way to Italy. In Italy, it became quite popular by the 14th century, being commonly used for eating by merchant and upper classes by 1600. It was proper for a guest to arrive with his own fork and spoon enclosed in a box called a cadena; this usage was introduced to the French court with Catherine de' Medici's entourage. Long after the personal table fork had become commonplace in France, at the supper celebrating the marriage of the duc de Chartres to Louis XIV's natural daughter in 1692, the seating was described in the court memoirs of Saint-Simon:"King James having his Queen on his right hand and the King on his left, and each with their cadenas." In Perrault's contemporaneous fairy tale of La Belle au bois dormant (1697), each of the fairies invited for the christening is presented with a splendid "Fork Holder." The fork's adoption in northern Europe was slower. Its use was first described in English by Thomas Coryat in a volume of writings on his Italian travels (1611), but for many years it was viewed as an unmanly Italian affectation. Some writers of the Roman Catholic Church expressly disapproved of its use, seeing it as "excessive delicacy": "God in his wisdom has provided man with natural forks — his fingers. Therefore it is an insult to Him to substitute artificial metallic forks for them when eating." [5][6] It was not until the 18th century that the fork became commonly used in Great Britain, although some sources say forks were common in France, England and Sweden already by the early 17th century.[7][8] The curved fork that is used in most parts of the world today, was developed in Germany in the mid 18th century. The standard four-tine design became current in the early 19th century. A 1908 design patent drawing for a spork, from U.S. Patent D388,664 The 20th century also saw the emergence of the "spork", a utensil that is half-fork and half-spoon. With this new "fork-spoon", only one piece of cutlery is needed when eating (so long as no knife is required). The back of the spork is shaped like a spoon and can scoop food while the front has shortened tines like a fork, allowing spearing of food, making it convenient and easy to use. It has found popularity in fast food and military settings. [edit] Types of forks * Beef fork A fork used for picking up very thin slices of meat. This fork is shaped like a regular fork, but it is slightly bigger and the tines are curved outward. The curves are used for piercing the thin sliced beef. * Berry fork * Carving fork A two-pronged fork used to hold meat steady while it is being carved. They are often sold with carving knives or slicers as part of a carving set. * Cheese fork * Chip fork A two-pronged disposable fork, usually made out of sterile wood (though increasingly of plastic), specifically designed for the eating of chips (known as french fries in North America). * Cocktail fork A small fork resembling a trident, used for spearing cocktail garnishes such as olives. * Cold meat fork * Crab fork A short, sharp and narrow three-pronged or two-pronged fork designed to easily extract meat when consuming cooked crab. * Dessert fork (alternatively, pudding fork/cake fork in Great Britain) Any of several different special types of forks designed to eat desserts, such as a pastry fork. They usually have only three tines and are smaller than standard dinner forks. The leftmost tine may be widened so as to provide an edge with which to cut (though it is never sharpened). * Dinner fork * Fish fork * Fondue fork A narrow fork, usually having two tines, long shaft and an insulating handle, typically of wood, for dipping bread into a pot containing sauce * Fruit salad fork A fork used which is used to pick up pieces of fruit such as grapes, strawberries, melon and other varies types of fruit. * Knork A utensil combining characteristics of a knife and a fork * Meat fork * Olive fork * Oyster fork * Pastry fork * Pickle fork A long handled fork used for extracting pickles from a jar, or an alternative name for a ball joint separator tool used to unseat a ball joint.[9] * Pie fork * Pitchfork * Relish fork * Salad fork Similar to a regular fork, but may be shorter, or have one of the outer tines shaped differently. Often, a "salad fork" in the silverware service of some restaurants (especially chains) may be simply a second fork; conversely, some restaurants may omit it, offering only one fork in their service. * Sporf A utensil combining characteristics of a spoon, a fork and a knife * Spork A utensil combining characteristics of a spoon and a fork * Tea fork * Toasting fork A fork, usually having two tines, very long metal shaft and sometimes an insulating handle, for toasting food over coals or an open flame [edit] Novelty forks Spaghetti fork * Extension Fork A long-tined fork with a telescopic handle, allowing for its extension or contraction. * Spaghetti fork A fork with a metal shaft loosely fitted inside a hollow plastic handle. The shaft protrudes through the top of the handle, ending in a bend that allows the metal part of the fork to be easily rotated with one hand while the other hand is holding the plastic handle. This supposedly allows spaghetti to be easily wound onto the tines. Electric variations of this fork have become more prevalent in modern times. [edit] See also * Pitchfork * Garden fork * Tuning Fork * Fork etiquette * Table setting * Fork (software development) * Spoon * Knife * Spork * Trong

suspension Return to the top

A motorcycle's suspension serves a dual purpose: contributing to the vehicle's handling and braking, and providing safety and comfort by keeping the vehicle's passengers comfortably isolated from road noise, bumps and vibrations. The typical motorcycle has a pair of fork tubes for the front suspension, and a swingarm with one or two shock absorbers for the rear suspension.[1] Contents [hide] * 1 Front suspension o 1.1 Telescopic forks + 1.1.1 Pre-load adjustment + 1.1.2 Damping adjustment # 1.1.2.1 Fork oil # 1.1.2.2 Cartridge forks # 1.1.2.3 Gas-charged cartridge forks + 1.1.3 Brake dive + 1.1.4 Saxon-Motodd (Telelever) fork + 1.1.5 Hossack/Fior (Duolever) fork o 1.2 Single-sided * 2 Rear suspension o 2.1 Early rear suspensions + 2.1.1 Plunger suspension o 2.2 Swingarms o 2.3 Shock absorbers + 2.3.1 Twin shock absorbers + 2.3.2 Mono-shock + 2.3.3 Pre-load adjustment + 2.3.4 Damping adjustment * 3 See also * 4 References * 5 Further reading [edit] Front suspension Main article: Motorcycle fork The most common form of front suspension for a motorcycle is the telescopic fork. Early front suspension designs used frames with springs. Vincent Black Lightning with Girdraulic front suspension Some British manufacturers (e.g. Greeves) used a version of the swinging arm for front suspension on their motocross designs. A single-sided version of the idea is also used in motor scooters such as the Vespa. The Hub-center steering as developed by Ascanio Rodorigo, on a concept associated to Massimo Tamburini is a complex front swingarm alternative system that entails suspension and steering, as seen in projects such as Bimota Tesi and Vyrus motorcycles. [edit] Telescopic forks In 1934 Nimbus was the first manufacturer to produce a motorcycle with hydraulically damped telescopic forks. Most motorcycles today use telescopic forks for the front suspension. The forks can be most easily understood as simply large hydraulic shock absorbers with internal coil springs. They allow the front wheel to react to imperfections in the road while isolating the rest of the motorcycle from that motion. Telescopic forks on a 1969 BMW The top of the forks are connected to the motorcycle's frame in a triple tree clamp (otherwise known to British riders as the top yoke and bottom yoke), which allows the forks to be turned in order to steer the motorcycle. The bottom of the forks are connected to the front axle around which the front wheel spins. On typical forks, the upper portion, known as the fork tubes, slide inside the fork bodies, which are the lower part of the forks. As the tubes slide in and out of the body they are telescoping, thus the term telescopic forks. The fork tubes must be smooth to seal the fork oil inside the fork, and typically have a mirrored finish, though some fork tubes, especially those on off-road motorcycles, are enclosed in plastic protective sleeves, known as gaiters. "Upside-down" (USD) forks, also known as inverted forks, are installed inverted compared to typical forks, with the tubes at the bottom and the bodies at the top. This decreases the unsprung weight of the motorcycle and improves its handling. USD forks are usually found on sportbikes, though Honda's large power-cruiser, the Valkyrie, sported USD forks. [edit] Pre-load adjustment Motorcycle suspensions are designed so that the springs are always under compression, even when fully extended. Pre-load is used to adjust the initial position of the suspension with the weight of the motorcycle and rider acting on it. Both the front forks and the rear shock or shocks can be adjusted for pre-load on most modern motorcycles. The difference between the fully extended length of the suspension and the length compressed by the weight of the motorcycle and rider is called "total sag". Total sag is set to optimize the initial position of the suspension to avoid "bottoming out" or "topping out" under normal riding conditions. "Bottoming out" occurs when the suspension is compressed to the point where it mechanically cannot compress any more. "Topping out" occurs when the suspension extends fully and cannot mechanically extend any more. Increasing pre-load increases the initial force on the spring thereby reducing total sag. Decreasing pre-load decreases the initial force in the spring thereby increasing total sag. Since the weight of the motorcycle and rider are the only forces compressing the suspension from the fully extended position. Two simple examples using the motorcycle's forks shows why: 1. Suppose that the bike and rider put a total weight on the front suspension of 300 lb. Suppose the spring rate of each fork spring is 50 lb per inch. That would put total sag at 3 inch. Installing a 1 inch long spacer in each fork leg gives a pre-load of 50 lb per spring, a total of 100 lb. When the weight of the rider and motorcycle are loaded onto the suspension it will compress 2 inch from full extension (2 inches total sag). Now the force exerted on (and by) each fork spring is 200 lb (1 inch pre-load + 2 inch total sag = 3 inch total spring compression) for a total of 400 lb.This is not going to be exact the same numbers for different spring rates. Because with a spring rate of of 25 lb per inch in each fork, Would double the total sag and a spring rate of 100 lb per inch would cut it in half. This is just an example. 2. Suppose we now install a 2 inch long spacer in each fork leg. The pre-load is now 100 lb per spring, a total of 200 lb. The total sag will change since we still have the same 300 lb loading the forks. The total sag will now be 1 inch. The total force on each spring is now, 350 lb on each fork spring for a total of 700 lb force. The front suspension's initial position is 1 inch longer than in the preceding example (1 inch less total sag). The difference is that there is less chance of topping out in example 1, less chance of bottoming out in example 2. Motorcycle manufacturers generally provide optimal total sag settings. This is also why too-soft springs cannot be "fixed" by adding pre-load, too-stiff springs cannot be "fixed" by reducing pre-load. It will help but changing to springs of the correct spring rate for the total weight of the bike and rider is the only solution. Some motorcycles have externally accessible pre-load adjustments. Typically, this is a screw-type adjustment that moves a backing plate inside the fork against the top of the fork spring. The farther down the adjuster is screwed, the higher the preload. A few motorcycles allow adjustment of pre-load by changing the air pressure inside the forks. Valves at the top of the forks allow air to be added or released from the fork.[2] More air pressure gives more preload, and vice versa. Pre-load on bikes without adjusters can be changed by disassembling the fork and changing the length of the spacer between the top of the fork spring and the fork cap. Spacers can be installed under the rear shock springs similarly. A longer spacer gives higher preload, and vice-versa. The pre-load on both forks should always be the same. Dangerous handling behavior and possible mechanical damage can result otherwise.[citation needed] [edit] Damping adjustment Some stock telescopic forks have external adjustments for damping. The adjuster is either a dial or a knob slotted for a screwdriver. Turning the adjuster turns a rod inside the fork which brings different sized orifices into alignment with the damping fluid flow path inside the fork. Smaller orifices restrict the flow of the fork oil more and give greater damping, and vice versa. This adjustment is either for compression damping, rebound damping, or for both. [edit] Fork oil Since forks act as hydraulic shocks, changing the weight of the fork oil will change the damping. Higher weight fork oil will give more damping, and vice versa. Fork oil collects impurities over time and should be changed periodically. A motorcycle's manual will give guidelines on how often the oil should be changed. Decades ago, it was often recommended to use ATF (automatic transmission fluid) as fork oil. Currently most sources recommend using an oil specifically designed to be used as fork oil. [edit] Cartridge forks Cartridge forks use internal cartridges with various leaf springs covering orifices to control the damping of the fork. Some of the leaf springs lift with little force allow fluid to flow through the orifice. Other springs require greater force to lift and allow flow. This gives the fork digressive damping, allowing it to be stiff over small bumps, but get (relatively) softer over larger bumps. Also, the springs only allow flow in one direction, so one set of springs controls compression damping, and another rebound damping. This allows the dampings to be set separately. Cartridge emulators are aftermarket parts that make non-cartrdige forks behave like cartridge forks. [edit] Gas-charged cartridge forks In 2007 Traxxion Dynamics offered the first gas-charged bolt-in cartridge set for modern sportbike forks to the public. This kit is legal for "supersport" styled classes of racing, which regulations don't allow a complete fork replacement, and force competitors to use the stock fork casings. This was the first significant change in fork damping technology for road bikes since the introduction of the standard pumping style cartridge decades prior. [edit] Brake dive Applying the brakes of a moving motorcycle increases the load borne by the front wheel and decrease the load borne by the rear wheel due to a phenomenon called load transfer. For a detailed explanation and a sample calculation, see the braking section of the Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics article. BMW's 1955-1969 Earles fork eliminated and reversed brake dive If the motorcycle is equipped with telescopic forks, the added load on the front wheel is transmitted through the forks, which compress. This shortening of the forks causes the front end of the bike to move lower, and this is called brake dive. Brake dive can be disconcerting to the rider, who may feel like he or she is about to be thrown over the front of the motorcycle. If the bike dives so far as to bottom out the front forks, it can also cause handling and braking problems. One of the purposes of a suspension is to help maintain contact between the tire and road. If the suspension has bottomed out, it is no longer moving as it should, and is no longer helping to maintain contact. Brake dive with telescopic forks can be reduced by either increasing the spring rate of the fork springs, or increasing the compression damping of the forks. However, all of these changes make the motorcycle less pleasant to ride on rough roads, since the front end will feel stiffer, in the 1980s various manufacturers attempted to get round this by methods of anti-dive such as: * ACT: Developed by Marzocchi and fitted to Buell motorcycles such as the Buell RR 1200 (1988). * ANDF (Anti Nose Dive Forks): This was fitted to a number of Suzuki GSX models and the RG250. * AVDS (Automatic Variable Damping System): This was fitted to a number of Kawasaki motorcycles. * NEAS (New Electrically Activated Suspension): As fitted to the Suzuki GSX-R 1100 and GSX-R 750 Limited Edition. * PDF (Posi Damp Fork): This was fitted to the Suzuki RG500 and GSX-R 750 and worked by brake fluid pressure closing a valve in the mechanism when the brakes are applied, restricting the flow of damping oil and slowing fork compression. The valves are spring loaded so if the wheel hits a bump when the brakes are on, they bounce off their seats and restore the flow of oil for a moment to allow the suspension to absorb the shock. * TCS (Travel Control System): Anti-dive system with variable damping. TCS was introduced on the FZ 400 R (1984, only for the Japanese market). * TRAC (Torque Reactive Anti-dive Control): This was fitted to a number of Honda motorcycles such as the CB1100F, CB1000C, and VFR750F and worked by utilizing a pivoting caliper that activated a valve in the fork leg. Another method to reduce or eliminate brake dive in telescopic forks is to use a reactive link or torque arm to connect the braking components to the motorcycle frame via the triple clamp. Some fork designs mitigate dive, eliminate it, or even reverse it without affecting the front suspension adversely. The Earles fork is among the latter; when braking the front brake hard, the front end of the motorcycle actually rises. BMW's Telelever fork is designed to nearly eliminate dive, but could have been designed to eliminate it completely if the manufacturer chose to do so. Leading link front forks, such as used on some Ural motorcycles, can also be designed either to reduce or eliminate dive. [edit] Saxon-Motodd (Telelever) fork BMW's Telelever The Saxon-Motodd (marketed as Telelever by BMW) has an additional swingarm that mounts to the frame and supports the spring. This causes the rake and trail to increase during braking instead of decreasing as with traditional telescopic forks. [edit] Hossack/Fior (Duolever) fork The Hossack/Fior (marketed as Duolever by BMW) separates completely the suspension from steering forces. It was developed by Norman Hossack though used by Claude Fior and John Britten on racebikes. Hossack himself described the system as a 'steered upright'. In 2004 BMW announced the K1200S with a new front suspension that is based upon this design. [edit] Single-sided The only production motorcycle to use a single-sided front swingarm suspension was Yamaha's GTS1000, introduced in 1993. The GTS used the RADD front suspension designed by James Parker. However, a single sided girder fork was use by the German firm Imme between 1949 and 1951, and the Vespa scooter has a single-sided trailing-link fork. More recently, the ItalJet "Dragster" scooter also uses a single-sided swingarm suspension, though unlike the GTS1000 there is no upper control arm; the upper part of the suspension on the Dragster serves only to transmit steering input. [edit] Rear suspension Plunger rear suspension on a BMW R51/3 [edit] Early rear suspensions While front suspensions were almost universally adopted before World War I, several manufacturers did not use rear suspension on their bikes until after World War II. However, motorcycles with rear suspension were offered to the public before World War I. Notable among these are the 1913 Indian Single with a swingarm suspended from a leaf spring and the 1913 Pope with wheels supported on a pair of plungers which were each suspended by a coil spring.[3][4] [edit] Plunger suspension Several motorcycles before and immediately after World War II used plunger suspension in which the vertical movement of the rear axle was controlled by plungers suspended by springs.[5] Notable manufacturers of bikes with plunger suspension include Adler, Ariel, BMW, BSA, Indian, MZ, Norton, and Zündapp [edit] Swingarms Main article: Swingarm The basic motorcycle swingarm is a rectangle, with one short side connected to the motorcycle's frame with bearings so that it can pivot.[6] The other short side is the rear axle around which the rear wheel turns. The long sides are connected to the motorcycle's frame or rear sub-frame with one or two shocks with coil-over springs. In production motorcycles, swingarms are not exactly rectangular, but their function can be more easily understood by thinking of them as such. Moto Guzzi's CA.R.C. Some swing arms have only one long-side, and are known as single-sided swingarms. Notable examples include the Honda VFR800 and the BMW R- and K-series. Single-sided swingarms make rear-wheel removal easier, though they generally increase the unsprung weight of the rear suspension. This is due to the additional material required to give identical rigidity to a conventional swingarm setup. For this reason sports bikes are rarely seen using the setup. Notable exclusions are the Ducati 916 which was intended to be taken endurance racing, the MV Agusta f4 which has a hollow interior for reducing weight (a magnesium version is also available), and the Ducati 1098, which was given a single sided swingarm purely for styling reasons. BMW's Paralever rear suspension on a R1200GS On many shaft-drive motorcycles the drive shaft is contained in one of the long sides of the swingarm. Notable examples include all post-1955 BMW models prior to BMW's use of the single-sided swingarms, Urals, many Moto Guzzi twins, the Honda Goldwing, the Yamaha XS Eleven, and the Yamaha FJR1300. The BMW R- and K-series combine a shaft-drive contained in the swing arm with a single-sided swingarm, and the combination is marketed as the Paralever. Newer Moto Guzzi motorcycles use a similar arrangement marketed as the CA.R.C. ("CArdano Reattivo Compatto" - Compact Reactive Shaft Drive). For motorcycles with chain drives, the rear axle can be adjusted forward and back in relation to the swingarm, to adjust chain tension. [edit] Shock absorbers The hydraulic shock absorbers used on the rear suspensions of motorcycles are essentially the same as those used in other vehicle applications. For more detail, see the article on shock absorbers. Motorcycle shocks do differ slightly in that they nearly always use a coil-over spring. In other words, the spring for the rear suspension is a coil spring that is installed over, or around, the shock. In terms of adjustment, rear shocks span the range from pre-load adjustments only to racing shocks with adjustments for pre-load, and four different kinds of damping. Most shocks have internal oil reservoirs, but some have external ones, and some offer air-assisted damping. A number of companies offer custom-built rear shocks for motorcycles. These shocks are assembled for a specific motorcycle and rider combination, taking in to account the characteristics of the motorcycle, the weight of the rider, and the rider's preferred riding style/aggressiveness. [edit] Twin shock absorbers Twinshock refers to motorcycles that have two shock absorbers. Generally, this term is used to denote a particular era of motorcycles, and is most frequently used when describing off-road motorcycles. During the late 1970s and 1980s, motorcycle rear suspension design and performance underwent tremendous advances. The primary goal and result of these advances were increased rear wheel travel, as measured in the how far the rear wheel could move up and down. Before this period of intense focus on rear suspension performance, most off-road motorcycles had rear wheel travel of about 3.5–4 inch (9–10 cm). At the end of this period, most of these motorcycles had rear wheel travel of approximately 12 inch (30 cm). At the beginning of this period, various rear suspension designs were used to reach this degree of performance. However, by the end of this period, a design consisting of using only one shock absorber (instead of two) was universally accepted and used. Motorcycles with only one shock absorber are called monoshock motorcycles. The performance of monoshock motorcycles was vastly superior to twin shock motorcycles. Accordingly, this design distinction is readily used to categorize motorcycles. Since monoshock motorcycles have been the norm since the 1980s, the term "twinshock" is now used to categorize vintage motorcycles. This distinction is important in that it provides classes used for vintage motorcycle competition. For example, vintage motocross races are held for older motocross motorcycles. To prevent the better performing monoshock motorcycles from dominating the competition, there are separate competition classes for monoshock and twinshock motorcycles, which prevents them from competing directly against each other. [edit] Mono-shock On a motorcycle with a mono-shock rear suspension, there is only one shock that connects the rear swingarm to the motorcycle's frame. Typically this lone shock absorber is in front of the rear wheel, and uses a linkage to connect to the swingarm. Mono-shocks eliminate torque to the swingarm and provide more consistent handling and braking. They are also easier to adjust, since there's only one shock absorber to adjust, and there is no worry about matching two shocks. Also, the linkages used to connect the shock to the swing-arm are frequently designed to give a rising rate of damping for the rear.[7] Honda refers to its mono-shock designs as Pro-link suspensions. [edit] Pre-load adjustment The pre-load on a rear shock absorber is typically adjusted via a threaded or notched collar on the shock. As the collar is rotated, the coil-over spring is compressed more or less. The more the spring is compressed, the higher the pre-load, and vice versa. Some shock absorbers, known as air-assist shock absorbers, allow adjustment of preload by changing the air pressure inside the shock. A valve on the shock absorber allows air to be introduced or released from the shock. More air pressure gives more preload, and vice versa. [edit] Damping adjustment Stock rear shocks typically offer no damping adjustment, or a single adjustment for both compression and rebound damping. This adjustment is usually made by a dial at the very top or very bottom of the shock. The dial selects one of a few different orifice sizes for the damping fluid flow path. The larger the orifice, the less the damping, and vice versa.

rebuild Return to the top

"Rebuild" is a song written by Jon Foreman of Switchfoot and Matt Thiessen of Relient K. The song was written in conjunction with the bands' 2007 Appetite for Construction Tour, featuring members from all three bands on tour, Switchfoot, Relient K, and Ruth. Matt Thiessen sang second vocals, and Dustin Ruth played harmonica. All proceeds from the song download will be donated to Habitat For Humanity. It was slated to surface on iTunes, but Relient K frontman Matt Thiessen said the two bands would release the single online for free, but with an option for donation for Habitat. “So I think we’re gonna release it for free online and create a place where people can donate to Habitat,” Thiessen said.[1] The song was first played live on October 17, 2007 at a live show in Columbus, Ohio.[2] Contents [hide] * 1 Early appearances * 2 Official release * 3 Other appearances * 4 References * 5 External links [edit] Early appearances * Some of Switchfoot's live bootlegs from the tour contain this song. * Jon Foreman officially confirmed the song's imminent online release on October 28, 2007 at a live show in Mobile, Alabama [edit] Official release It was officially made available to the public November 1, 2007, as an optional download. Methods of downloading offered by the bands included donating money or time to Habitat, or downloading the song for free. This marked the very first release by Switchfoot's fledgling record label, lowercase people records. [edit] Other appearances * The song appears as a track on the San Diego Fire Relief CD [2], a compilation featuring several San Diego artists, with all proceeds helping relief efforts after the San Diego fires in late 2007 [edit] References

revalve Return to the top

* Kawasaki KX250 Higher Compression Ratio, Beefier 48mm forks,new twinspark ignition system, new 2 piece KIPS powervalve, and revalved rear shock. ... 7 KB (1,017 words) - 13:35, 1 November 2010 * Mercedes-AMG The AMG wheels were often coupled with an AMG performance suspension package which included uprated/lowered springs and revalved shock ... 31 KB (4,396 words) - 14:01, 3 January 2011 * Honda Legend The A-Spec suspension featured lowering springs (approximately 0.75 inch)and revalved dampers. The ride stiffness increased, but not ... 73 KB (11,320 words) - 23:07, 29 December 2010 * Acura RL The A-Spec suspension featured lowering springs (approximately 0.75 inch)and revalved dampers. The ride stiffness increased, but not ... 70 KB (10,923 words) - 03:30, 2 January 2011

penske Return to the top

Penske Corporation is a Bloomfield Hills, Michigan-based, closely-held, diversified transportation services company. Auto racing legend Roger Penske serves as Chairman, and Rob Kurnick as President. In 1985, Penske acquired Hertz's Truck Rental division to form Hertz/Penske Truck Rental. In 1992, "Hertz" was dropped and it became Penske Truck Rental. On June 5, 2009 it was announced that Penske would purchase the Saturn brand and its assets from the bankrupt General Motors. On 9/30/2009 Penske announced that it would no longer acquire Saturn from GM due to manufacturing uncertainties. Penske's subsidiaries include: * Penske Racing (high-performance racing) * Penske Motor Group (retail automotive in California only) Companies in which Penske Corporation owns a stake and performs a controlling role: * Penske Truck Leasing (joint venture between Penske Corp. and GE) o Penske Logistics (Supply chain management and logistics service. A subsidiary of Penske Truck Leasing.) * Penske Automotive Group (PAG:NYSE - a 40+% stake) * VM Motori S.p.A. (a 51% stake), Truck-Lite, and Davco (transportation component manufacturing). [edit] External links * Penske Corporation * United Auto Group * Penske Truck Leasing * Penske Logistics * Penske Truck Rental * Penske Automotive * Penske Racing * Penske Racing Shocks * Penske profile @ Hoovers

shock Return to the top

A mechanical or physical shock is a sudden acceleration or deceleration caused, for example, by impact, drop, kick, earthquake, or explosion. Shock is a transient physical excitation. Shock is usually measured by an accelerometer. This describes a shock pulse as a plot of acceleration versus time. Acceleration can be reported in units of metre per second squared. Often, for convenience, the magnitude of a shock is stated as a multiple of the standard acceleration due to free fall in the Earth's gravity, a quantity with the symbol g having the value 9.80665 m·s-2. Thus a shock of "20 g" is equivalent to about 196 m/s2. A shock can be characterized by the peak acceleration, the duration, and the shape of the shock pulse (half sine, triangular, trapezoidal, etc). The Shock response spectrum is a method for further evaluating a mechanical shock. It is sometimes used as a defense standard for military equipment. Contents [hide] * 1 Effects of shock * 2 Considerations * 3 See also * 4 Notes * 5 Further reading [edit] Effects of shock Mechanical shock has the potential for damaging an item (e.g., an entire light bulb) or an element of the item (e.g. a filament in an Incandescent light bulb): * A brittle or fragile item can fracture. For example, two crystal wine glasses may shatter when impacted against each other. A shear pin in an engine is designed to fracture with a specific magnitude of shock. Note that a soft ductile material may sometimes exhibit brittle failure during shock due to time-temperature superposition. * A ductile item can be bent by a shock. For example, a copper pitcher may bend when dropped on the floor. * Some items may not be damaged by a single shock but will experience fatigue failure with numerous repeated low-level shocks. * A shock may result in only minor damage which may not be critical for use. However, cumulative minor damage from several shocks will eventually result in the item being unusable. * A shock may not produce immediate apparent damage but might cause the service life of the product to be shortened: the reliability is reduced. * A shock may cause an item to become out of adjustment. For example, when a precision scientific instrument is subjected to a moderate shock, good metrology practice may be to have it recalibrated before further use. * Some materials such as primary high explosives may detonate with mechanical shock or impact. * When glass bottles of liquid are dropped or subjected to shock, the water hammer effect may cause hydrodynamic glass breakage. [1] [edit] Considerations When laboratory testing, field experience, or engineering judgement indicates that an item could be damaged by mechanical shock, several courses of action might be considered[2]: * Reduce and control the input shock at the source. * Modify the item to improve its toughness or support it to better handle shocks. * Use shock absorbers or cushions to control the shock transmitted to the item. Cushioning [3] reduces the peak acceleration by extending the duration of the shock. * Plan for failures: accept certain losses. Have redundant systems available, etc. [edit] See also * Cushioning * Fracture mechanics * Fracture toughness * g-force * Impact (mechanics) * Jerk (physics) * Response spectrum * Thermal shock * Vibration * Water hammer

ohlins Return to the top

Öhlins (sometimes spelled Ohlins, pronounced: OH-LEEN) or Öhlins Racing AB, is a manufacturer of high-performance automotive, motorcycle, snowmobile, and ATV suspension systems based in Upplands Väsby just north of Stockholm, Sweden. The company also produces other types of motorcycle components, including steering dampers and a two-wheel drive system [1]. Öhlins Rear Monoshock The company was founded by Kenth Öhlin in 1976 [2]. In 1987, Yamaha Motor Company became the majority-owner of Öhlins Racing AB, with Öhlins continuing to operate as an independent company within the business group [3]. In December 2007, Öhlins reclaimed a 95% share of the company back from Yamaha [4]. There are six design departments at Öhlins, with a total of more than 50 engineers, each specializing in a particular field [5]. Öhlins Research centre in Jönköping, Sweden (with 7 employees in 2002) are responsible for the development of the Öhlins Continuously Controlled Electronic Suspension (CES) system [6]. Contents [hide] * 1 Zenvo ST1 * 2 See also * 3 References * 4 External links [edit] Zenvo ST1 The Zenvo ST1 super-car features three-way adjustable dampers by Öhlins.[7]

cartridges Return to the top

car·tridge    /ˈkɑrtrɪdʒ/ Show Spelled[kahr-trij] Show IPA –noun 1. Also called cartouche. a cylindrical case of pasteboard, metal, or the like, for holding a complete charge of powder, and often also the bullet or the shot for a rifle, machine gun, or other small arm. 2. a case containing any explosive charge, as for blasting. 3. any small container for powder, liquid, or gas, made for ready insertion into some device or mechanism: an ink cartridge for a pen. 4. Also called magazine. Photography . a lightproof metal or plastic container for a roll of film, usually containing both the supply and take-up spools, as well as a pressure plate, for rapid loading without the necessity of threading the film. 5. Audio . pickup ( def. 8 ) . 6. a flat, compact container enclosing an endless loop of audiotape, operated by inserting into a slot in a player. Use cartridges in a Sentence See images of cartridges Search cartridges on the Web Origin: 1570–80; earlier cartage, cartrage, alter. of cartouche Printer Cartridges Save On High Yield Print Cartridges Free Shipping. Order Online Today! www.WorldClassInk.com All Major Brands of Toner Price is the Major difference. - - Genuine and Generic Brands! www.majorbrandstoner.com pick·up    /ˈpɪkˌʌp/ Show Spelled[pik-uhp] Show IPA –noun 1. an improvement, as in health, business conditions, work, production, etc. 2. Informal . pick-me-up. 3. Informal . a casual, usually unintroduced acquaintance, often one made in hope of a sexual relationship. 4. an instance of stopping for or taking aboard passengers or freight, as by a train, ship, taxicab, etc., esp. an instance of taking freight or a shipment of goods onto a truck. 5. the person, freight, or shipment so taken aboard: The cab driver had a pickup at the airport who wanted to be driven to the docks. 6. Automotive . a. capacity for rapid acceleration. b. acceleration; increase in speed. c. Also called pickup truck . a small truck with a low-sided open body, used for deliveries and light hauling. 7. Baseball . the act of fielding a ball after it hits the ground. 8. Also called cartridge. a small device attached to the end of a phonograph tone arm that contains a stylus and the mechanism that translates the movement of the stylus in a record groove into a changing electrical voltage. 9. Radio . a. the act of receiving sound waves in the transmitting set in order to change them into electrical waves. b. a receiving or recording device. c. the place from which a broadcast is being transmitted. d. interference ( def. 4 ) . 10. Television . a. the change of light energy into electrical energy in a television camera. b. camera tube. c. a telecast made directly from the scene of an action. 11. a hitchhiker. 12. Metalworking . (in the cold-drawing of metal) the adhesion of particles of the metal to the die or plug. –adjective 13. composed of or employing whatever persons are available on a more or less impromptu basis: a pickup game of baseball; a pickup dance band. 14. using whatever ingredients are handy or available: a Sunday night pickup supper. Origin: 1855–60; n. use of v. phrase pick up Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To cartridges Word Origin & History cartridge 1579, corruption of Fr. cartouche "a full charge for a pistol," from It. cartoccio "roll of paper," an augmentive form of M.L. carta "paper" (see card (n.)). The notion is of a roll of paper containing a charge for a firearm. pickup "small truck used for light loads," 1932, from pick (v.) + up, the notion probably being for use to "pick up" (feed, lumber, etc.) and deliver it where it was needed. As an adj. meaning "temporary, ad hoc" (of a game, band, etc.) the word is recorded from 1936. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Slang Dictionary pickup definition 1. n. something eaten or drunk to boost energy; a pick-me-up. : Bartender, I need a little pickup. 2. n. a sudden increase in something, such as speed or tempo in music. : There will be a pickup in sales during the Christmas season.

internals Return to the top

An internality is a term used in behavioral economics to describe those types of behaviors that impose costs on a person in the long-run that are not taken into account when making decisions in the present. Classical Economics discourages government from creating legislation that targets internalities, because it is assumed that the consumer takes these personal costs into account when paying for the good that causes the internality. For example, cigarettes should be taxed because of the negative consumption externalities that they impose, such as second-hand smoke, not because the smoker harms him or herself by smoking. This is because the economic assumption of rationality would pose the argument that the smoker has taken into account the damage that smoking does to himself, but still desires the cigarettes more than the long-term health.

upgrades Return to the top

The term upgrade refers to the replacement of a product with a newer version of the same product. It is most often used in computing and consumer electronics, generally meaning a replacement of hardware, software or firmware with a newer or better version, in order to bring the system up to date or to improve its characteristics. Contrast update and replace. See also laptop upgrade. Audiophiles use the word upgrade to describe the replacement of a product with a better-quality product with the aim of bringing enhancements to sound quality. Look up upgrade in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Contents [hide] * 1 Computing and consumer electronics * 2 Risks * 3 Audiophile * 4 References * 5 See also [edit] Computing and consumer electronics Common hardware upgrades include (for example) installing additional memory (RAM), adding larger hard disks, replacing microprocessor cards or graphics cards, and installing new versions of software. Many other upgrades are often possible as well. Common software upgrades include changing the version of an operating system, of an office suite, of an anti-virus program, or of various other tools. Common firmware upgrades include the updating of the iPod control menus, the Xbox 360 dashboard, or the non-volatile flash memory that contains the embedded operating system for a consumer electronics device. Users can often download software and firmware upgrades from the Internet. Often the download is a patch—it does not contain the new version of the software in its entirety, just the changes that need to be made. Software patches usually aim to improve functionality or solve problems with security. Rushed patches can cause more harm then good and are therefore sometimes regarded[by whom?] with scepticism for a short time after release (see "Risks")[1]. Patches are generally free. A software or firmware upgrade can be major or minor and the release version code-number increases accordingly. A major upgrade will change the version number, whereas a minor update will often append a ".01", ".02", ".03", etc. For example, "version 10.03" might designate the third minor upgrade of version 10. In commercial software, the minor upgrades (or updates) are generally free, but the major versions must be purchased. See also: sidegrade. When one replaces a product made by one supplier with a product made by a different supplier, one carries out a competitive upgrade. [edit] Risks Although developers produce upgrades in order to improve a product, there are risks involved—including the possibility that the upgrade will worsen the product. Upgrades of hardware involve a risk that new hardware will not be compatible with other pieces of hardware in a system. For example, an upgrade of RAM may not be compatible with existing RAM in a computer. Other hardware components may not be compatible after either an upgrade or downgrade, due to the non-availability of compatible drivers for the hardware with a specific operating system. Conversely, there is the same risk of non-compatibility when software is upgraded or downgraded for previously functioning hardware to no longer function. Upgrades of software introduce the risk that the new version (or patch) will contain a bug, causing the program to malfunction in some way or not to function at all. For example, in October 2005, a glitch in a software upgrade caused trading on the Tokyo Stock Exchange to shut down for most of the day[2]. Similar gaffes have occurred: from important government systems[3] to freeware on the internet. Upgrades can also worsen a product subjectively. A user may prefer an older version even if a newer version functions perfectly as designed. [edit] Audiophile This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2010) The hobby of audiophilia offers a rich playground for potential upgraders and tweakers. Audiophile circles use the noun "upgrade" to describe the replacement of a system component or components, for example a low quality or low powered electronic amplifier, with a better quality or more powerful amplifier from the same or different manufacturer's product range ostensibly to improve on the quality of reproduced music from a hi-fi system. However, the description generally excludes the modification to the sound using different types of interconnect cables, or the replacement of electronic components within the system components by the owners in order to customise the sound, as this would constitute DIY or tweaking. The word "upgrade" has spawned the noun upgraditis, used to describe a person's obsession, compulsion, or addiction (akin to a disease) to perpetually changing his/her hi-fi system components in order to obtain ever greater enjoyment and fulfillment through enhancements to sound quality. Although the original aim is to improve the sound quality, persons with extreme manifestations of this disorder may completely lose sight of the objective and make frequently and highly expensive component changes for their own sake.

stock Return to the top

The capital stock (or just stock) of a business entity represents the original capital paid into or invested in the business by its founders. It serves as a security for the creditors of a business since it cannot be withdrawn to the detriment of the creditors. Stock is distinct from the property and the assets of a business which may fluctuate in quantity and value. Contents [hide] * 1 Shares * 2 Usage * 3 Types of stock * 4 Stock derivatives * 5 History * 6 Shareholder * 7 Application o 7.1 Shareholder rights o 7.2 Means of financing * 8 Trading o 8.1 Buying o 8.2 Selling o 8.3 Stock price fluctuations o 8.4 Share price determination o 8.5 Arbitrage trading * 9 See also * 10 References * 11 External links [edit] Shares The stock of a business is divided into shares, the total of which must be stated at the time of business formation. Given the total amount of money invested in the business, a share has a certain declared face value, commonly known as the par value of a share. The par value is the de minimis (minimum) amount of money that a business may issue and sell shares for in many jurisdictions and it is the value represented as capital in the accounting of the business. In other jurisdictions, however, shares may not have an associated par value at all. Such stock is often called non-par stock. Shares represent a fraction of ownership in a business. A business may declare different types (classes) of shares, each having distinctive ownership rules, privileges, or share values. Ownership of shares is documented by issuance of a stock certificate. A stock certificate is a legal document that specifies the amount of shares owned by the shareholder, and other specifics of the shares, such as the par value, if any, or the class of the shares. [edit] Usage Used in the plural, stocks is often used as a synonym for shares.[1] Traditionalist demands that the plural stocks be used only when referring to stocks of more than one company are rarely heard nowadays. In the United Kingdom, South Africa, and Australia, stock can also refer to completely different financial instruments such as government bonds or, less commonly, to all kinds of marketable securities.[2] [edit] Types of stock Stock typically takes the form of shares of either common stock or preferred stock. As a unit of ownership, common stock typically carries voting rights that can be exercised in corporate decisions. Preferred stock differs from common stock in that it typically does not carry voting rights but is legally entitled to receive a certain level of dividend payments before any dividends can be issued to other shareholders.[3][4] Convertible preferred stock is preferred stock that includes an option for the holder to convert the preferred shares into a fixed number of common shares, usually anytime after a predetermined date. Shares of such stock are called "convertible preferred shares" (or "convertible preference shares" in the UK) New equity issues may have specific legal clauses attached that differentiate them from previous issues of the issuer. Some shares of common stock may be issued without the typical voting rights, for instance, or some shares may have special rights unique to them and issued only to certain parties. Often, new issues that have not been registered with a securities governing body may be restricted from resale for certain periods of time. Preferred stock may be hybrid by having the qualities of bonds of fixed returns and common stock voting rights. They also have preference in the payment of dividends over common stock and also have been given preference at the time of liquidation over common stock. They have other features of accumulation in dividend. [edit] Stock derivatives For more details on this topic, see equity derivative. A stock derivative is any financial instrument which has a value that is dependent on the price of the underlying stock. Futures and options are the main types of derivatives on stocks. The underlying security may be a stock index or an individual firm's stock, e.g. single-stock futures. Stock futures are contracts where the buyer is long, i.e., takes on the obligation to buy on the contract maturity date, and the seller is short, i.e., takes on the obligation to sell. Stock index futures are generally not delivered in the usual manner, but by cash settlement. A stock option is a class of option. Specifically, a call option is the right (not obligation) to buy stock in the future at a fixed price and a put option is the right (not obligation) to sell stock in the future at a fixed price. Thus, the value of a stock option changes in reaction to the underlying stock of which it is a derivative. The most popular method of valuing stock options is the Black Scholes model.[5] Apart from call options granted to employees, most stock options are transferable. [edit] History One of the earliest stock by VOC During Roman times, the empire contracted out many of its services to private groups called publicani. Shares in publicani were called "socii" (for large cooperatives) and "particulae" which were analogous to today's Over-The-Counter shares of small companies. Though the records available for this time are incomplete, Edward Chancellor states in his book Devil Take the Hindmost that there is some evidence that a speculation in these shares became increasingly widespread and that perhaps the first ever speculative bubble in "stocks" occurred.[citation needed] The first company to issue shares of stock after the Middle Ages was the Dutch East India Company in 1606. The innovation of joint ownership made a great deal of Europe's economic growth possible following the Middle Ages. The technique of pooling capital to finance the building of ships, for example, made the Netherlands a maritime superpower. Before adoption of the joint-stock corporation, an expensive venture such as the building of a merchant ship could be undertaken only by governments or by very wealthy individuals or families. Economic historians find the Dutch stock market of the 17th century particularly interesting: there is clear documentation of the use of stock futures, stock options, short selling, the use of credit to purchase shares, a speculative bubble that crashed in 1695, and a change in fashion that unfolded and reverted in time with the market (in this case it was headdresses instead of hemlines). Dr. Edward Stringham also noted that the uses of practices such as short selling continued to occur during this time despite the government passing laws against it. This is unusual because it shows individual parties fulfilling contracts that were not legally enforceable and where the parties involved could incur a loss. Stringham argues that this shows that contracts can be created and enforced without state sanction or, in this case, in spite of laws to the contrary.[6][7] [edit] Shareholder Stock certificate for ten shares of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company. Main article: Shareholder A shareholder (or stockholder) is an individual or company (including a corporation) that legally owns one or more shares of stock in a joint stock company. Both private and public traded companies have shareholders. Companies listed at the stock market are expected to strive to enhance shareholder value. Shareholders are granted special privileges depending on the class of stock, including the right to vote on matters such as elections to the board of directors, the right to share in distributions of the company's income, the right to purchase new shares issued by the company, and the right to a company's assets during a liquidation of the company. However, shareholder's rights to a company's assets are subordinate to the rights of the company's creditors. Shareholders are considered by some to be a partial subset of stakeholders, which may include anyone who has a direct or indirect equity interest in the business entity or someone with even a non-pecuniary interest in a non-profit organization. Thus it might be common to call volunteer contributors to an association stakeholders, even though they are not shareholders. Although directors and officers of a company are bound by fiduciary duties to act in the best interest of the shareholders, the shareholders themselves normally do not have such duties towards each other. However, in a few unusual cases, some courts have been willing to imply such a duty between shareholders. For example, in California, USA, majority shareholders of closely held corporations have a duty to not destroy the value of the shares held by minority shareholders.[8][9] The largest shareholders (in terms of percentages of companies owned) are often mutual funds, and, especially, passively managed exchange-traded funds. [edit] Application The owners of a company may want additional capital to invest in new projects within the company. They may also simply wish to reduce their holding, freeing up capital for their own private use. By selling shares they can sell part or all of the company to many part-owners. The purchase of one share entitles the owner of that share to literally share in the ownership of the company, a fraction of the decision-making power, and potentially a fraction of the profits, which the company may issue as dividends. In the common case of a publicly traded corporation, where there may be thousands of shareholders, it is impractical to have all of them making the daily decisions required to run a company. Thus, the shareholders will use their shares as votes in the election of members of the board of directors of the company. In a typical case, each share constitutes one vote. Corporations may, however, issue different classes of shares, which may have different voting rights. Owning the majority of the shares allows other shareholders to be out-voted - effective control rests with the majority shareholder (or shareholders acting in concert). In this way the original owners of the company often still have control of the company. [edit] Shareholder rights Although ownership of 50% of shares does result in 50% ownership of a company, it does not give the shareholder the right to use a company's building, equipment, materials, or other property. This is because the company is considered a legal person, thus it owns all its assets itself. This is important in areas such as insurance, which must be in the name of the company and not the main shareholder. In most countries, boards of directors and company managers have a fiduciary responsibility to run the company in the interests of its stockholders. Nonetheless, as Martin Whitman writes: ...it can safely be stated that there does not exist any publicly traded company where management works exclusively in the best interests of OPMI [Outside Passive Minority Investor] stockholders. Instead, there are both "communities of interest" and "conflicts of interest" between stockholders (principal) and management (agent). This conflict is referred to as the principal/agent problem. It would be naive to think that any management would forgo management compensation, and management entrenchment, just because some of these management privileges might be perceived as giving rise to a conflict of interest with OPMIs.[10] Even though the board of directors runs the company, the shareholder has some impact on the company's policy, as the shareholders elect the board of directors. Each shareholder typically has a percentage of votes equal to the percentage of shares he or she owns. So as long as the shareholders agree that the management (agent) are performing poorly they can elect a new board of directors which can then hire a new management team. In practice, however, genuinely contested board elections are rare. Board candidates are usually nominated by insiders or by the board of the directors themselves, and a considerable amount of stock is held or voted by insiders. Owning shares does not mean responsibility for liabilities. If a company goes broke and has to default on loans, the shareholders are not liable in any way. However, all money obtained by converting assets into cash will be used to repay loans and other debts first, so that shareholders cannot receive any money unless and until creditors have been paid (often the shareholders end up with nothing).[11] [edit] Means of financing Financing a company through the sale of stock in a company is known as equity financing. Alternatively, debt financing (for example issuing bonds) can be done to avoid giving up shares of ownership of the company. Unofficial financing known as trade financing usually provides the major part of a company's working capital (day-to-day operational needs). [edit] Trading The shares of a company may in general be transferred from shareholders to other parties by sale or other mechanisms, unless prohibited. Most jurisdictions have established laws and regulations governing such transfers, particularly if the issuer is a publicly-traded entity. The desire of stockholders to trade their shares has led to the establishment of stock exchanges. A stock exchange is an organization that provides a marketplace for trading shares and other derivatives and financial products. Today, investors are usually represented by stock brokers who buy and sell shares of a wide range of companies on the exchanges. A company may list its shares on an exchange by meeting and maintaining the listing requirements of a particular stock exchange. In the United States, through the inter-market quotation system, stocks listed on one exchange can also be traded on other participating exchanges, including the Electronic Communication Networks (ECNs), such as Archipelago or Instinet. Many large non-U.S companies choose to list on a U.S. exchange as well as an exchange in their home country in order to broaden their investor base. These companies must maintain a block of shares at a bank in the US, typically a certain percentage of their capital. On this basis, the holding bank establishes American Depositary Shares and issues an American Depository Receipt (ADR) for each share a trader acquires. Likewise, many large U.S. companies list their shares at foreign exchanges to raise capital abroad. Small companies that do not qualify and cannot meet the listing requirements of the major exchanges may be traded over the counter (OTC) by an off-exchange mechanism in which trading occurs directly between parties. The major OTC markets in the United States are the electronic quotation systems OTC Bulletin Board (OTCBB) and the Pink OTC Markets (Pink Sheets) where individual retail investors are also represented by a brokerage firm and the quotation service's requirements for a company to be listed are minimal. Shares of companies in bankruptcy proceeding are usually listed by these quotation services after the stock is delisted from an exchange. [edit] Buying There are various methods of buying and financing stocks. The most common means is through a stock broker. Whether they are a full service or discount broker, they arrange the transfer of stock from a seller to a buyer. Most trades are actually done through brokers listed with a stock exchange. There are many different stock brokers from which to choose, such as full service brokers or discount brokers. The full service brokers usually charge more per trade, but give investment advice or more personal service; the discount brokers offer little or no investment advice but charge less for trades. Another type of broker would be a bank or credit union that may have a deal set up with either a full service or discount broker. There are other ways of buying stock besides through a broker. One way is directly from the company itself. If at least one share is owned, most companies will allow the purchase of shares directly from the company through their investor relations departments. However, the initial share of stock in the company will have to be obtained through a regular stock broker. Another way to buy stock in companies is through Direct Public Offerings which are usually sold by the company itself. A direct public offering is an initial public offering in which the stock is purchased directly from the company, usually without the aid of brokers. When it comes to financing a purchase of stocks there are two ways: purchasing stock with money that is currently in the buyer's ownership, or by buying stock on margin. Buying stock on margin means buying stock with money borrowed against the stocks in the same account. These stocks, or collateral, guarantee that the buyer can repay the loan; otherwise, the stockbroker has the right to sell the stock (collateral) to repay the borrowed money. He can sell if the share price drops below the margin requirement, at least 50% of the value of the stocks in the account. Buying on margin works the same way as borrowing money to buy a car or a house, using a car or house as collateral. Moreover, borrowing is not free; the broker usually charges 8-10% interest. [edit] Selling Selling stock is procedurally similar to buying stock. Generally, the investor wants to buy low and sell high, if not in that order (short selling); although a number of reasons may induce an investor to sell at a loss, e.g., to avoid further loss. As with buying a stock, there is a transaction fee for the broker's efforts in arranging the transfer of stock from a seller to a buyer. This fee can be high or low depending on which type of brokerage, full service or discount, handles the transaction. After the transaction has been made, the seller is then entitled to all of the money. An important part of selling is keeping track of the earnings. Importantly, on selling the stock, in jurisdictions that have them, capital gains taxes will have to be paid on the additional proceeds, if any, that are in excess of the cost basis. [edit] Stock price fluctuations The price of a stock fluctuates fundamentally due to the theory of supply and demand. Like all commodities in the market, the price of a stock is sensitive to demand. However, there are many factors that influence the demand for a particular stock. The field of fundamental analysis and technical analysis attempt to understand market conditions that lead to price changes, or even predict future price levels. A recent study[12] shows that customer satisfaction, as measured by the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI), is significantly correlated to the market value of a stock. Stock price may be influenced by analyst's business forecast for the company and outlooks for the company's general market segment. [edit] Share price determination At any given moment, an equity's price is strictly a result of supply and demand. The supply is the number of shares offered for sale at any one moment. The demand is the number of shares investors wish to buy at exactly that same time. The price of the stock moves in order to achieve and maintain equilibrium. When prospective buyers outnumber sellers, the price rises. Eventually, sellers attracted to the high selling price enter the market and/or buyers leave, achieving equilibrium between buyers and sellers. When sellers outnumber buyers, the price falls. Eventually buyers enter and/or sellers leave, again achieving equilibrium. Thus, the value of a share of a company at any given moment is determined by all investors voting with their money. If more investors want a stock and are willing to pay more, the price will go up. If more investors are selling a stock and there aren't enough buyers, the price will go down. * Note: "For Nasdaq-listed stocks, the price quote includes information on the bid and ask prices for the stock."[13] Of course, that does not explain how people decide the maximum price at which they are willing to buy or the minimum at which they are willing to sell. In professional investment circles the efficient market hypothesis (EMH) continues to be popular, although this theory is widely discredited in academic and professional circles. Briefly, EMH says that investing is overall (weighted by a Stdev) rational; that the price of a stock at any given moment represents a rational evaluation of the known information that might bear on the future value of the company; and that share prices of equities are priced efficiently, which is to say that they represent accurately the expected value of the stock, as best it can be known at a given moment. In other words, prices are the result of discounting expected future cash flows. The EMH model, if true, has at least two interesting consequences. First, because financial risk is presumed to require at least a small premium on expected value, the return on equity can be expected to be slightly greater than that available from non-equity investments: if not, the same rational calculations would lead equity investors to shift to these safer non-equity investments that could be expected to give the same or better return at lower risk. Second, because the price of a share at every given moment is an "efficient" reflection of expected value, then—relative to the curve of expected return—prices will tend to follow a random walk, determined by the emergence of information (randomly) over time. Professional equity investors therefore immerse themselves in the flow of fundamental information, seeking to gain an advantage over their competitors (mainly other professional investors) by more intelligently interpreting the emerging flow of information (news). The EMH model does not seem to give a complete description of the process of equity price determination. For example, stock markets are more volatile than EMH would imply. In recent years it has come to be accepted that the share markets are not perfectly efficient, perhaps especially in emerging markets or other markets that are not dominated by well-informed professional investors. Another theory of share price determination comes from the field of Behavioral Finance. According to Behavioral Finance, humans often make irrational decisions—particularly, related to the buying and selling of securities—based upon fears and misperceptions of outcomes. The irrational trading of securities can often create securities prices which vary from rational, fundamental price valuations. For instance, during the technology bubble of the late 1990s (which was followed by the dot-com bust of 2000-2002), technology companies were often bid beyond any rational fundamental value because of what is commonly known as the "greater fool theory". The "greater fool theory" holds that, because the predominant method of realizing returns in equity is from the sale to another investor, one should select securities that they believe that someone else will value at a higher level at some point in the future, without regard to the basis for that other party's willingness to pay a higher price. Thus, even a rational investor may bank on others' irrationality. [edit] Arbitrage trading When companies raise capital by offering stock on more than one exchange, the potential exists for discrepancies in the valuation of shares on different exchanges. A keen investor with access to information about such discrepancies may invest in expectation of their eventual convergence, known as arbitrage trading. Electronic trading has resulted in extensive price transparency (efficient market hypothesis) and these discrepancies, if they exist, are short-lived and quickly equilibrate [edit] See also * Arrangements between railroads * Boiler room * Bucket shop * Buying in * Concentrated stock * Direct Registration System * Equity investment * GICS * Golden share * House stock * Insider trading * Money managers * Naked short selling * Penny stock * Scripophily * Stock and flow * Stock dilution * Stock valuation * Stub (stock) * Tracking stock * Voting interest

machine Return to the top

A machine is a device that uses energy to perform some activity. In common usage, the meaning is that of a device having parts that perform or assist in performing any type of work. A simple machine is a device that transforms the direction or magnitude of a force. The word "machine" is derived from the Latin word machina,[1] which in turn derives from the Doric Greek μαχανά (machana), Ionic Greek μηχανή (mechane) "contrivance, machine, engine"[2] and that from μῆχος (mechos), "means, expedient, remedy".[3] Contents [hide] * 1 Usage * 2 Types and related components * 3 See also * 4 References * 5 Further reading [edit] Usage Historically, a device required moving parts to be classified as a machine; however, the advent of electronics technology has led to the development of devices without moving parts that many refer to as machines—the computer being the most obvious example.[1] "Engines" are machines that convert heat or other forms of energy into mechanical energy. For example, in an internal combustion engine the expansion of gases caused by the heat from an exothermic chemical reaction results in a force being applied to a movable component, such as a piston or turbine blade.[4] An engine is often considered part of a larger machine, such as an automobile or an aircraft. Machines are ubiquitous in a wide variety of industrial, commercial, residential and transportation applications. Those employing hydraulics are especially useful in manufacturing and construction. [edit] Types and related components Types of machines and related components Classification Machine(s) Simple machines Inclined plane, Wheel and axle, Lever, Pulley, Wedge, Screw Mechanical components Axle, Bearings, Belts, Bucket, Fastener, Gear, Key, Link chains, Rack and pinion, Roller chains, Rope, Seals, Spring, Wheel, Clock Atomic clock, Chronometer, Pendulum clock, Quartz clock Compressors and Pumps Archimedes' screw, Eductor-jet pump, Hydraulic ram, Pump, Tuyau, Vacuum pump Heat engines External combustion engines Steam engine, Stirling engine Internal combustion engines Reciprocating engine, Gas turbine Heat pumps Absorption refrigerator, Thermoelectric refrigerator, Regenerative cooling Linkages Pantograph, Cam, Peaucellier-Lipkin Turbine Gas turbine, Jet engine, Steam turbine, Water turbine, Wind generator, Windmill Aerofoil Sail, Wing, Rudder, Flap, Propeller Electronics Vacuum tube, Transistor, Diode, Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor, Memristor Miscellaneous Robot, Vending machine, Wind tunnel, Check weighing machines, Riveting machines [edit] See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Machines Main articles: Outline of machines and Outline of industrial machinery * Automation * Engineering * History of technology * Technology * Darwin Among the Machines * Mechanism * Human body

tuning Return to the top

Engine tuning is the adjustment, modification or design of internal combustion engines to yield optimal performance, to increase an engine's power output, economy, or durability. It has a long history, almost as long as the development of the car in general, originating with the development of early racing cars, and later, with the post-war hot-rod movement. Tuning can describe a wide variety of adjustments and modifications, from the routine adjustment of the carburetor and ignition system to significant engine overhauls. At the other end of the scale, performance tuning of an engine can involve revisiting some of the design decisions taken at quite an early stage in the development of the engine. Setting the idle speed, fuel/air mixture, carburetor balance, spark plug and distributor point gaps, and ignition timing were regular maintenance items for all older engines and the final but essential steps in setting up a racing engine. On modern engines, equipped with electronic ignition and fuel injection, some or all of these tasks are automated, although they still require periodic calibration. Contents [hide] * 1 Engine tune-up * 2 Chip tuning * 3 Performance tuning * 4 Definitions o 4.1 Overhaul o 4.2 Rebuild o 4.3 Re-manufacture o 4.4 Blueprinting * 5 History * 6 References * 7 See also [edit] Engine tune-up Main article: Tune-up A tune-up usually refers to the routine servicing of the engine to meet the manufacturer's specifications. Tune-ups are needed periodically as according to the manufacturer's recommendations to ensure an automobile runs as expected. Modern vehicles now typically require only a few tune-ups over the course of an approximate 250,000-kilometre (160,000 mi) or a 10-year lifespan. Tune-ups may include the following: * Re-fastening of cylinder head bolts * Adjustment of the carburetor idle speed and the air-fuel mixture * Inspection and possible replacement of ignition system components like contact breaker points, distributor cap and distributor rotor * Replacement of the air filter and other filters * Inspection of emission controls * Valvetrain adjustment * Replacement of spark plugs. In early days, mechanics finished tuning up a performance car such as a Ferrari and would take it around a track several times to burn out any built-up carbon; this is known as an Italian tuneup. [edit] Chip tuning Main article: Chip tuning Modern engines are equipped with an engine management system which can be modified to different settings, producing different performance levels. Manufacturers often produce a few engines which are used in a wider range of models and platforms, and this allows the manufacturers to sell cars in various markets with different regulations without having to spend money developing and designing different engines to fit these regulations. This also allows for a single engine to be used by different brands, tuned to suit their particular market. [edit] Performance tuning Performance tuning focuses on tuning an engine for motorsport, although many such cars never compete but rather are built for show or leisure driving. In this context, the power output, torque, and responsiveness of the engine are of premium importance, but reliability and fuel economy are also relevant. In races, the engine must be strong enough to withstand the additional stress placed upon it, and so is often far stronger than any mass-produced design on which it may be based, and also that the vehicle must carry sufficient fuel. In particular, the transmission, driveshaft and any other load-bearing powertrain components may need to be modified in order to withstand the load from the increased power. In most cases, people are interested in increasing the power output of an engine. Many well tried and tested techniques have been devised to achieve this, but all essentially operate to increase the rate (and to a lesser extent efficiency) of combustion in a given engine. This is achieved by putting more air/fuel mixture into the engine, using a fuel with higher energy content, burning it more rapidly, and getting rid of the waste products more rapidly - this increases volumetric efficiency. In order to check the amount of the air/fuel mixture, air fuel ratio meters are often used. The weight of this fuel will affect the overall performance of the car, so fuel economy is a competitive advantage. This also means that the performance tuning of an engine should take place in the context of the development of the overall vehicle. The specific ways to increase power include: * Increasing the engine displacement by one or both of two methods: "boring" - increasing the diameter of the cylinders and pistons, or by "stroking" - using a crankshaft with a greater throw. * Using larger or multiple carburetors, to create a more controllable air/fuel mixture to burn, and to get it into the engine more smoothly. In modern engines, fuel injection is more often used, and may be modified in a similar manner. * Increasing the size of the valves in the engine, thus decreasing the restriction in the path of the fuel–air mixture entering, and the exhaust gases leaving the cylinder. Using multiple valves per cylinder results in the same effect – it is often more difficult to fit several small valves than to have larger single valves due to the valve gear required. However it is difficult to find space for one large valve in the inlet and a large valve on the outlet side. Sometimes a large exhaust valve and two smaller inlet valves are fitted for improved flow. As the pressure generated during combustion provides more force to exhaust the waste gasses than the force available to inlet clean charged gas, a larger inlet valve area is needed to provide easier flow. The two smaller inlet valves' total area is larger than that of the single exhaust valve and thus provides that easier inlet flow. This is why exhaust valves are typically smaller in area than the inlet valves. * Using larger bored, smoother, less contorted intake and exhaust manifolds. This helps maintain the velocity of gases. Similarly, the ports in the cylinder can be enlarged and smoothed to match. This is termed cylinder head porting, usually with the aid of an air flow bench for testing and verifying the efficiency of the modifications. Manifolds with sharp turns force the air–fuel mix to separate at high velocities as fuel is heavier than air. * The larger bore may extend right through the complete exhaust system, using larger diameter piping and low back pressure mufflers, and through the intake system, with larger diameter airboxes and high-flow, high-efficiency air filters. Muffler modifications will change the sound of the car's engine, usually making it louder; for some tuners this is in itself a desirable effect. * Increasing the valve opening height (lift), by changing the profiles of the cams on the camshaft, or the lift (lever) ratio of the valve rockers (OHV engines), or cam followers (OHC engines). * Optimizing the valve timing to improve burning efficiency - usually this increases power at one range of operating RPM at the expense of reducing it at others. For many applications this compromise is acceptable. This can usually be achieved by fitting a differently profiled camshaft. See also valve timing, variable valve timing. * Raising the compression ratio by reducing the size of the combustion chamber, which makes more efficient use of the cylinder pressure developed and leading to more rapid burning of fuel, by using larger compression height pistons or thinner head gaskets, or by milling or "shaving" the cylinder head. High compression ratios can cause engine knock unless high octane fuels are used. * Forced Induction; adding a turbocharger or supercharger. The air/fuel mix entering the cylinders is increased by compressing the air. Further gains may be realized by cooling compressed (and thus heated) intake air with an air-to-air or air-to-water intercooler. * Using a fuel with higher energy content and by adding an oxidizer such as nitrous oxide. * Reducing losses to friction by machining moving parts to lower tolerances than would be acceptable for production, or by replacing parts. A common example of this is, in OHV engines, replacing the production rocker arms with replacements incorporating roller bearings in the roller contacting the valve stem. * Reducing the "rotating mass", which comprises the crankshaft, connecting rods, pistons, and flywheel. Doing so can improve throttle response due to lower inertia, as well as reduce overall vehicle weight. This may be achieved by using alloy parts instead of steel. However a heavy crankshaft can void the need for a flywheel (common on V6 engines). * Changing the tuning characteristics electronically, by changing the firmware of the engine management system (EMS). This chip tuning often works because modern engines are designed to produce more power than required, which is then reduced by the engine management system to make the engine operate smoothly over a wider RPM range, with low emissions. This is called de-tuning and produces long-lasting engines and the ability to increase power output later for facelift models. Recently emissions have played a large part in de-tuning, and engines will often be de-tuned to produce a particular carbon output for tax reasons. * Lowering the underbonnet temperature, which has the effect of lowering the engine intake temperature, therefore increasing the power. This is often done by installing a type of thermal insulation (normally a heatshield, thermal barrier coating or other type of Exhaust Heat Management) on or around the exhaust manifold. This ensures that more heat is diverted out and away from the underbonnet area. The choice of modification depends greatly on the degree of performance enhancement desired, budget, and the characteristics of the engine to be modified. Intake, exhaust, and chip upgrades are usually amongst the first modifications made as they are the cheapest, make reasonably general improvements, whereas a different camshaft, for instance, requires trading off smoothness at low engine speeds for improvements at high engine speeds. Furthermore, tuners may also use analytical tools to help evaluate and predict the effect of modifications on the performance of the vehicle. [edit] Definitions [edit] Overhaul An engine overhaul means putting the engine back to minimum factory specifications. This generally involves new piston rings, bearings and gaskets. When done by a competent engine builder the engine will perform as new. However the engine specifications will not be as is the engine just came out of the factory. A top overhaul only covers the replacement of components inside the cylinder head without removing the engine from the vehicle, such as valve and rocker arm replacement. A full overhaul however covers the whole engine component replacement which requires the engine to be removed from the vehicle, such as replacing the connecting rods and crankshaft bearings. By comparison, a full overhaul service costs more than a top overhaul service. [edit] Rebuild Replacing the engine's old parts with OEM units, or replacing them with high-performance parts e.g. bigger valves, high compression pistons, bigger cams, at once. [edit] Re-manufacture Re-manufactured is a marketing term to mean an engine put together to match factory specifications e.g. "as new". Although often a buyer may take this to mean all-new parts are used, this is never the case. At the very least, the cylinder block will be used, as may most other parts. High-quality rebuilds will often include new pistons and line-boring of the crankshaft and camshaft bores. [edit] Blueprinting In engine blueprinting, all the specifications are double-checked. Usually this indicates closer-than-factory tolerances, with custom specifications appropriate for a street car or a race car. The goals are either to re-manufacture the engine to the rated power for its manufacturer's design (because not all mass-production engines put out the rated power), or rebuild the engine to make more power from a given design than otherwise intended (because custom engines can often be redesigned to different specifications). Blueprinted components allow for a more exact balancing of reciprocating parts and rotating assemblies so that less power is lost through excessive engine vibrations and other mechanical inefficiencies. Ideally, blueprinting is performed on components removed from the production line before normal balancing and finishing. If finished components are blueprinted, there is the risk that the further removal of material will weaken the component. However, lightening components is generally an advantage in itself provided balance and adequate strength are both maintained, and more precise machining will in general strengthen a part by removing stress points, so in many cases performance tuners are able to work with finished components. For example, an engine manufacturer may list a piston ring end-gap specification of 0.003 to 0.005 inches for general use in a consumer automobile application. For an endurance racing engine which runs hot, a "blueprinted" specification of 0.0045 to 0.0050 may be desired. For a drag-racing engine which runs only in short bursts, a tighter 0.0035 to 0.0040 inch tolerance may be used instead. Thus "blueprint" can mean tighter or looser clearances, depending on the goal. [edit] History Igniscope ignition tester, with display tube and outer case missing. The Igniscope electronic ignition tester was produced by English Electric during the 1940s, originally as type UED for military use during World War 2[1]. The post-war version, type ZWA electronic ignition tester, was advertised as "the first of its kind, employing an entirely new technique" [2]. The Igniscope used a cathode ray tube, giving an entirely visual method of diagnosis. It was invented by D. Napier & Son Ltd., a subsidiary of English Electric, and British Patents 495478, 495547 and 563502 applied[3]. The Igniscope was capable of diagnosing latent and actual faults in both coil and magneto ignition systems, including poor battery supply bonding, points and condenser problems, distributor failure and spark plug gap[4]. One feature was a "loading" control which made latent faults more visible. The UED manual includes the spark plug firing order of the tanks and cars used by the British armed forces[5]

dynojet Return to the top

* Frank Wrathall He won the Ginetta G50 Cup in 2010 and going to debut for Dynojet in the 2011 British Touring Car Championship season . Career Early ... 4 KB (461 words) - 05:33, 9 January 2011 * 2010 Ginetta G50 Cup season Teams and drivers ! : Dynojet GBR Rob Huff | 1 | 66 GBR Frank Wrathall | All | 67 GBR Adam Morgan | All | Matt Blyth Motorsport | 73 GBR ... 27 KB (1,687 words) - 21:45, 25 November 2010 * 2011 British Touring Car Championship season Dynojet | Toyota Avensis NGTC NGTC ENG Frank Wrathall I | Honda Racing Team Honda Civic S2000 NGTC ENG Matt Neal C | SCO Gordon ... 14 KB (1,027 words) - 16:56, 14 January 2011 * Smart (automobile) uk/ | title Motorcycle tuning, engine tuning, turbocharging, dynojet, hayabusa turbo, turbo hayabusa, land speed record, dynojet, ... 36 KB (5,411 words) - 19:19, 16 January 2011 * Dynamometer com/articles/DynoJet_DataLink_Module/1.html | title DynoJet Data-Link Module | author Elisa Faustrum | work Modular Fords | accessdate ... 34 KB (5,108 words) - 23:26, 3 December 2010 * Aprilia RXV/SXV SXV 4.5 measured, dynojet: 54.3 djhp at 11000 rpm. SXV 5.5, measured, dynojet: 65.9 djhp at 10900 rpm. | torque NA | fuel system fuel ... 3 KB (502 words) - 20:12, 5 September 2010 * Next Generation Touring Car The Avensis was chosen as a demo model for the BTCC to launch the new specification ahead of the 2011 championship. Dynojet and ... 6 KB (812 words) - 10:17, 13 December 2010

tuner Return to the top

Tuner may refer to someone or something which adjusts or configures a mechanical, electronic, or musical device. Contents [hide] * 1 Electronic * 2 Musical * 3 Mechanical * 4 See also [edit] Electronic * Antenna tuner, a device to adjust the resonance frequency of an antenna or transmission line * Tuner (electronics), a module or device which separates out one channel from low-amplitude radio-frequency signals for further processing o Tuner (radio) o Tuner (television) * TV tuner card, a device that allows reception of digital television on a computer [edit] Musical * Electronic tuner, a device used by musicians and technicians to measure the pitch of a musical instrument to adjust or correct the input signal to the desired pitch * Machine head, a flat handle for the worm gear on a string instrument upon which a string is wound [edit] Mechanical * Tuner (car), a customized car or hot-rod [edit] See also * All pages beginning with "Tuner" * All pages with titles containing "Tuner" * Tuning (disambiguation) * Microtuner * Custom car * Electrical resonance

sell Return to the top

–verb (used with object) 1. to transfer (goods) to or render (services) for another in exchange for money; dispose of to a purchaser for a price: He sold the car to me for $1000. 2. to deal in; keep or offer for sale: He sells insurance. This store sells my favorite brand. 3. to make a sale or offer for sale to: He'll sell me the car for $1000. 4. to persuade or induce (someone) to buy something: The salesman sold me on a more expensive model than I wanted. 5. to persuade or induce someone to buy (something): The clerk really sold the shoes to me by flattery. 6. to make sales of: The hot record sold a million copies this month. 7. to cause to be accepted, esp. generally or widely: to sell an idea to the public. 8. to cause or persuade to accept; convince: to sell the voters on a candidate. 9. to accept a price for or make a profit of (something not a proper object for such action): to sell one's soul for political power. 10. to force or exact a price for: The defenders of the fort sold their lives dearly. 11. Informal . to cheat, betray, or hoax. –verb (used without object) 12. to engage in selling something. 13. to be on sale. 14. to offer something for sale: I like this house—will they sell? 15. to be employed to persuade or induce others to buy, as a salesperson or a clerk in a store: One sister is a cashier and the other sells. 16. to have a specific price; be offered for sale at the price indicated (fol. by at or for ): Eggs used to sell at sixty cents a dozen. This shirt sells for thirty dollars. 17. to be in demand by buyers: On a rainy day, umbrellas really sell. 18. to win acceptance, approval, or adoption: Here's an idea that'll sell. 19. sell (someone) a bill of goods. bill of goods ( def. 3 ) . –noun 20. an act or method of selling. 21. Stock Exchange . a security to be sold. 22. Informal . a cheat; hoax. —Verb phrases 23. sell off, to sell, esp. at reduced prices, in order to get rid of: The city is selling off a large number of small lots at public auction. 24. sell out, a. to dispose of entirely by selling. b. to betray (an associate, one's country, a cause, etc.); turn traitor: He committed suicide rather than sell out to the enemy. 25. sell up, British . to sell out: She was forced to sell up her entire stock of crystal. —Idiom 26. sell short. short ( def. 50 ) . Use sell in a Sentence See images of sell Search sell on the Web Origin: bef. 900; ME sellen (v.), OE sellan orig., to give, hence, give up (someone) to an enemy, betray, exchange for money; c. ON selja, LG sellen, Goth saljan to give up, sell, orig., to cause to take; akin to Gk heleîn to take —Related forms sell·a·ble, adjective —Synonyms 1. exchange, vend. See trade. —Antonyms 1. buy. Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : sell deal, trade, betray View more related words » sell 2    /sɛl/ Show Spelled[sel] Show IPA –noun, adjective, pronoun Scot. self. Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To sell World English Dictionary sell (sɛl) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — vb (foll by on ) , sells , selling , sold 1. to dispose of or transfer or be disposed of or transferred to a purchaser in exchange for money or other consideration; put or be on sale 2. to deal in (objects, property, etc): he sells used cars for a living 3. ( tr ) to give up or surrender for a price or reward: to sell one's honour 4. to promote or facilitate the sale of (objects, property, etc): publicity sells many products 5. to induce or gain acceptance of: to sell an idea 6. ( intr ) to be in demand on the market: these dresses sell well in the spring 7. informal ( tr ) to deceive or cheat 8. to persuade to accept or approve (of): to sell a buyer on a purchase 9. informal sell down the river to betray 10. sell oneself a. to convince someone else of one's potential or worth b. to give up one's moral or spiritual standards, etc 11. sell short a. informal to disparage or belittle b. finance to sell securities or goods without owning them in anticipation of buying them before delivery at a lower price — n 12. hard sell Compare soft sell the act or an instance of selling 13. informal a. a trick, hoax, or deception b. ( Irish ) a great disappointment: the service in the hotel was a sell [Old English sellan to lend, deliver; related to Old Norse selja to sell, Gothic saljan to offer sacrifice, Old High German sellen to sell, Latin cōnsilium advice] 'sellable — adj Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History sell O.E. sellan "to give," from P.Gmc. *saljanan (cf. O.N. selja "to hand over, deliver, sell;" O.Fris. sella, O.H.G. sellen "to give, hand over, sell;" Goth. saljan "to offer a sacrifice"), perhaps a causative form of the root of O.E. sala "sale." One of the first things a student of Old English has to learn is that the word that looks like sell usually means "give." Meaning "to give up for money" had emerged by c.1000. An O.E. word for "to sell" was bebycgan , from bycgan "to buy." Slang meaning "to swindle" is from 1597. The noun phrase hard sell is recorded from 1952. To sell one's soul is from c.1570. Sell-by date is from 1972. To sell (someone) down the river is first recorded 1927, but probably from slavery days, on notion of sale from the Upper South to the cotton plantations of the Deep South (attested in this literal sense since 1851). To sell like hot cakes is from 1839. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Legal Dictionary Main Entry: sell Function: verb Inflected Forms: sold ; sell·ing transitive verb 1 : to transfer ownership of by sale —compare BARTER, CONVEY, GIVE 2 : to offer for sale intransitive verb : to dispose of something by sale : make a sale —compare DONATE — sell·er noun — sell short : to sell something one does not own : make a short sale Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Law, © 1996 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source Idioms & Phrases sell In addition to the idioms beginning with sell, also see hard sell; like hot cakes, sell. The American Heritage® Dictionary of Idioms by Christine Ammer. Copyright © 1997. Published by Houghton Mifflin. Cite This Source Famous Quotations sell ""If you wish to be perfect, go, sell your possessions, ..." "You shall not eat anything that dies of itself; you may..." "If you want to be on good terms with everyone in this w..." "Don't sell firewood by a forest, nor fish beside a lake..." "Even a friend may sell you a cracked pot." More Quotes

install Return to the top

Question book-new.svg This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2010) Crystal Clear app kedit.svg This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (May 2009) Installation (or setup) of a program (including drivers, plugins, etc.) is the act of putting the program onto a computer system so that it can be executed. Because the requisite process varies for each program and each computer, many programs (including operating systems) come with a general-purpose or dedicated installer – a specialized program which automates most of the work required for their installation. Contents [hide] * 1 Overview * 2 Some jargon expressions * 3 Installer o 3.1 Bootstrapper o 3.2 Common installers * 4 See also * 5 References * 6 External links [edit] Overview Some software can be executed by simply copying it to a computer and executing it with no further ado; no installation procedure as such is required. Other programs are supplied in a form not suitable for immediate execution, and require an installation procedure. Installation may include unpacking of files supplied in a compressed form, copying them to suitable locations, tailoring the software to suit the hardware and the user's preferences, providing information about the program to the operating system, and so on. The installer may test for system suitability and available mass storage space. Some software is designed to be installed simply by copying their files to the desired location, and there is no formal installation process. This was once usual for many programs running under MS-DOS, Mac OS, Atari TOS, AmigaOS since early versions of these operating systems and actually it is very common and "de facto" standard in Mac OS X applications and is also used for many Windows applications. There are versions of some operating systems which do not themselves require installation, and can be run directly from a bootable CD, DVD, or USB drive, without affecting other operating systems installed (but not running) on the machine. Examples are AmigaOS 4.0, different Linux distros, MorphOS AmigaOS clone, or Mac OS 1-9. Installation usually implies that once installed, the program can be executed again and again, without the need to reinstall before each execution, until the program is uninstalled or the program prevents further execution, for example by coming to the end of its demonstration period. Some software does not need installation at all. There could be for example a special website that compiles or interprets and executes directly in a web browser. Software can be executed again and again from web browser cache. Common operations performed during software installations include creation or modification of: * Shared and non-shared program files * Folders/directories * Windows registry entries (Windows only) * Configuration file entries * Environment variables * Links or shortcuts [edit] Some jargon expressions Silent installation Installation that does not display messages or windows during its progress. "Silent installation" is not the same as "unattended installation", though it is often improperly used as such. Unattended installation Installation that is performed without user interaction during its progress or, in a stricter sense, with no user present at all, except eventually for the initial launch of the process. An installation process usually requires a user who "attends" it to make choices at request: accepting an EULA, specifying preferences and passwords, etc. In graphical environments, installers that offer a wizard-based interface are common. However these installers may also provide command line switches that allow performing unattended installations. Answer file Some unattended installations can be driven by a script providing answers to the various choices such as the answer file which can be used when installing Microsoft Windows on a large number of machines. Self installation Unattended installation, without the need of initial launch of the process (i.e. Vodafone Mobile Connect USB Modem or Huawei E220's Mobile Partner software that self-installs from the USB port). Headless installation Installation performed without using a monitor connected to the destination computer (in particular, on a computer with no video output at all). This can be an (attended) installation performed from another machine connected via LAN or via a serial cable. Unattended and headless installations are common tasks for system administrators. Clean installation Given the complexity of a typical installation there are many factors that may interfere with its successful completion. In particular files that are leftover from old installations of the same program or an unstable situation of the operating system may all act to prevent a given program from installing and working correctly. An installation performed in absence of such interfering factors (which may vary from program to program) is called a clean installation. In particular, a clean operating system installation can be performed by formatting its destination partition before the actual installation process. Flat installation An installation of a program performed from a copy (called a flat copy) of its original media contents (mostly CDs or DVDs) to a hard drive, rather than directly from the media. This may help in some situations where the target machine isn't able to cope with random access reads from CD/DVD at the same time as performing the CPU-intensive tasks often required by an installation, or where the target machine does not have an appropriate physical drive. Network Installation An installation of a program from a shared network drive. This may simply be a copy of the original media (as in a Flat Installation), but frequently, software publishers which offer site licenses for institutional customers provide a version intended for installation over a network. Virtual installation AmigaOS features a centalized standard installation utility called Installer since version 2.0 in 1991. It is driven by a LISP language interpreter, and users have the faculty of editing the installation scripts as these are plain text files. Installer also features the unsurpassed chance for users to perform virtual installations and verify any possible problem before committing the real installation. [edit] Installer An installation program or installer is a computer program that installs files, such as applications, drivers, or other software, onto a computer. Some installers are specifically made to install the files they contain; other installers are general-purpose and work by reading the contents of the software package to be installed. The differences between a package management system and an installer are: Package Management System Installer Typically part of the operating system. Each product comes bundled with its own installer. Uses a single installation database. Performs its own installation, sometimes recording information about that installation in a registry. Can verify and manage all packages on the system. Only works with its bundled product. Single package management system vendor. Multiple installer vendors. Single package format. Multiple installation formats. [edit] Bootstrapper During the installation of computer programs it is sometimes necessary to update the installer or package manager itself. To make this possible, a technique called bootstrapping is used. The common pattern for this is to use a small executable file (e.g. setup.exe) which updates the installer and starts the real installation after the update. This small executable is called bootstrapper. Sometimes the bootstrapper installs other prerequisites for the software during the bootstrapping process too. [edit] Common installers Cross platform installer builders that produce installers for Windows, Mac OS X and Linux include InstallAnywhere (Flexera Software), JExpress (DeNova),[1] and InstallBuilder (BitRock Inc.). Installers for Microsoft Windows include Windows Installer, a software installation component. Additional third party commercial tools for creating installers for Windows include InstallShield (Flexera Software), InstallAware (InstallAware Software),[2] Wise Installation Studio (Wise Solutions, Inc.), SetupBuilder (Lindersoft, Inc.),[3] Installer VISE (MindVision Software), MSI Studio (ScriptLogic Corporation), Actual Installer (Softeza Development),[4] Smart Install Maker (InstallBuilders Company)[5], MSI Factory and Setup Factory (Indigo Rose Software). Free alternative installer-authoring tools include NSIS, IzPack, Clickteam, InnoSetup and WiX. Mac OS X includes Installer, a native Package Manager software. Mac OS X also includes a separate software updating application, Software Update but only supports Apple and system software. Commercial applications for Mac OS X may also use a third-party installer, such as Mac version of Installer VISE (MindVision Software) or InstallerMaker (StuffIt). [edit] See also * Application virtualization * Java * List of installation software * Package management system * Portable application * Pre-installed software * Software distribution * Uninstaller [edit] References 1. ^ Denova.com 2. ^ "Installation Software for Windows Programs". InstallAware. http://www.installaware.com/. 3. ^ "Lindersoft: Software Installation Solutions - High-quality Software Installations". Setupbuilder.com. http://www.setupbuilder.com/. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 4. ^ "Installation Software for Windows Programs". Actual Installer. http://www.actualinstaller.com/. Retrieved 2010-05-02. 5. ^ "Smart Install Maker - Custom setup files made easy". Sminstall.com. http://www.sminstall.com/. Retrieved 2010-05-02. [edit] External links * The Application Deployment Information Center Look up installer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installation_(computer_programs)" Categories: Installation software | Package management systems

power Return to the top

pow·er    /ˈpaʊər/ Show Spelled[pou-er] Show IPA –noun 1. ability to do or act; capability of doing or accomplishing something. 2. political or national strength: the balance of power in Europe. 3. great or marked ability to do or act; strength; might; force. 4. the possession of control or command over others; authority; ascendancy: power over men's minds. 5. political ascendancy or control in the government of a country, state, etc.: They attained power by overthrowing the legal government. 6. legal ability, capacity, or authority: the power of attorney. 7. delegated authority; authority granted to a person or persons in a particular office or capacity: the powers of the president. 8. a document or written statement conferring legal authority. 9. a person or thing that possesses or exercises authority or influence. 10. a state or nation having international authority or influence: The great powers held an international conference. 11. a military or naval force: The spanish Armada was a mighty power. 12. Often, powers. a deity; divinity: the heavenly powers. 13. powers, Theology . an order of angels. Compare angel ( def. 1 ) . 14. Dialect . a large number or amount: There's a power of good eatin' at the church social. 15. Physics . a. work done or energy transferred per unit of time. Symbol: P b. the time rate of doing work. 16. mechanical energy as distinguished from hand labor: a loom driven by power. 17. a particular form of mechanical or physical energy: hydroelectric power. 18. energy, force, or momentum: The door slammed shut, seemingly under its own power. 19. Mathematics . a. the product obtained by multiplying a quantity by itself one or more times: The third power of 2 is 8. b. (of a number x ) a number whose logarithm is a times the logarithm of x (and is called the a th power of x ). Symbolically, y = x a is a number that satisfies the equation log y = a log x. c. the exponent of an expression, as a in x a . d. cardinal number ( def. 2 ) . 20. Optics . a. the magnifying capacity of a microscope, telescope, etc., expressed as the ratio of the diameter of the image to the diameter of the object. Compare magnification ( def. 2 ) . b. the reciprocal of the focal length of a lens. –verb (used with object) 21. to supply with electricity or other means of power: Atomic energy powers the new submarines. 22. to give power to; make powerful: An outstanding quarterback powered the team in its upset victory. 23. to inspire; spur; sustain: A strong faith in divine goodness powers his life. 24. (of a fuel, engine, or any source able to do work) to supply force to operate (a machine): An electric motor powers this drill. 25. to drive or push by applying power: She powered the car expertly up the winding mountain road. –adjective 26. operated or driven by a motor or electricity: a power mower; power tools. 27. power-assisted: His new car has power brakes and power windows. 28. conducting electricity: a power cable. 29. Informal . expressing or exerting power; characteristic of those having authority or influence: to host a power lunch. —Verb phrases 30. power down, Computers . to shut off. 31. power up, Computers . to turn on. —Idiom 32. the powers that be, those in supreme command; the authorities: The decision is in the hands of the powers that be. Use power in a Sentence See images of power Search power on the Web Origin: 1250–1300; ME pouer ( e ), poer ( e ) < AF poueir, poer, n. use of inf.: to be able < VL *potēre (r. L posse to be able, have power). See potent1 —Related forms coun·ter·pow·er, noun de-power, verb (used with object) re·pow·er, verb —Synonyms 1. capacity. 3. energy. See strength. 4, 5. sway, rule, sovereignty. —Antonyms 1. incapacity. 3. weakness. Explore the Visual Thesaurus » Related Words for : power powerfulness, ability, great power, major power, superpower View more related words » Powers will Amaze You Voted #1 Spiritualist. Unique Love Spells Fast Results 312-612-2250 www.yourmypsychic.com Sloan 1-972-896-0332 Free Reading. Stop Searching You have found the Best Psychic www.psychiclovesolutions.com pow 1    /paʊ/ Show Spelled[pou] Show IPA –interjection 1. (used to express or indicate a heavy blow or a loud, explosive noise.) –noun 2. a heavy blow or a loud, explosive noise. 3. the power of exciting. –adjective 4. exciting and appealing. Origin: 1880–85, Americanism cardinal number   –noun 1. Also called cardinal numeral. any of the numbers that express amount, as one, two, three, etc. ( distinguished from ordinal number). 2. Also called potency, power. Mathematics . a number or symbol analogous to the number of elements in a finite set, being identical for two sets that can be placed into one-to-one correspondence: The cardinal number of the set a 1 , a 2 , … a n is n. Origin: 1585–95 Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2011. Cite This Source | Link To power World English Dictionary power (ˈpaʊə) [Click for IPA pronunciation guide] — n 1. ability or capacity to do something 2. ( often plural ) a specific ability, capacity, or faculty 3. political, financial, social, etc, force or influence 4. control or dominion or a position of control, dominion, or authority 5. a state or other political entity with political, industrial, or military strength 6. a person who exercises control, influence, or authority: he's a power in the state 7. a prerogative, privilege, or liberty 8. a. legal authority to act, esp in a specified capacity, for another b. the document conferring such authority 9. a. a military force b. military potential 10. maths a. the value of a number or quantity raised to some exponent b. another name for exponent 11. statistics the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis in a test when it is false. The power of a test of a given null depends on the particular alternative hypothesis against which it is tested 12. physics, engineering P a measure of the rate of doing work expressed as the work done per unit time. It is measured in watts, horsepower, etc 13. a. the rate at which electrical energy is fed into or taken from a device or system. It is expressed, in a direct-current circuit, as the product of current and voltage and, in an alternating-current circuit, as the product of the effective values of the current and voltage and the cosine of the phase angle between them. It is measured in watts b. ( as modifier ): a power amplifier 14. the ability to perform work 15. a. mechanical energy as opposed to manual labour b. ( as modifier ): a power mower 16. a particular form of energy: nuclear power 17. a. a measure of the ability of a lens or optical system to magnify an object, equal to the reciprocal of the focal length. It is measured in dioptres b. another word for magnification 18. informal a large amount or quantity: a power of good 19. ( plural ) the sixth of the nine orders into which the angels are traditionally divided in medieval angelology 20. ( often foll by an infinitive ) in one's power able or allowed (to) 21. in someone's power under the control or sway of someone 22. the powers that be the established authority or administration — vb 23. to give or provide power to 24. to fit (a machine) with a motor or engine 25. slang ( intr ) to travel with great speed or force [C13: from Anglo-Norman poer, from Vulgar Latin potēre (unattested), from Latin posse to be able] Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009 Cite This Source Word Origin & History pow expression imitative of a blow, collision, etc., first recorded 1881. power c.1300, from Anglo-Fr. pouair, O.Fr. povoir, noun use of the infinitive in O.Fr., "to be able," earlier podir (842), from V.L. *potere, from L. potis "powerful" (see potent). Meaning "a state or nation with regard to international authority or influence" is from 1726. The verb meaning "to supply with power" is recorded from 1898. Powerful is c.1400. Powerhouse "building where power is generated" is from 1881; fig. sense attested from 1915. Power-broker (1961) said to have been coined by T.H. White in ref. to the 1960 U.S. presidential election. Phrase the powers that be is from Rom. xiii.1. As a statement wishing good luck, more power to (someone) is recorded from 1842. cardinal number 1591, "one, two, three," etc. as opposed to ordinal numbers "first, second, third," etc.; so called because they are the principal numbers and the ordinals depend on them (see cardinal). Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper Cite This Source Medical Dictionary pow·er definition Pronunciation: /ˈpa u̇ (-ə)r/ Function: n 1 : an inherent property or effect drug that enhances the heart's pumping power — Kathleen Fackelmann > 2 : MAGNIFICATION 2b Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary, © 2007 Merriam-Webster, Inc. Cite This Source power pow·er (pou'ər) n. 1. The capacity to perform or act effectively. 2. Strength or force that is exerted or that is capable of being exerted. 3. The amount of work done per unit time. 4. A measure of the magnification of an optical instrument, such as a microscope or telescope. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. Cite This Source Science Dictionary cardinal number (kär'dn-əl) Pronunciation Key A number, such as 3, 11, or 412, used in counting to indicate quantity but not order. Compare ordinal number. power (pou'ər) Pronunciation Key 1. The source of energy used to operate a machine or other system. 2. The rate at which work is done, or energy expended, per unit time. Power is usually measured in watts (especially for electrical power) or horsepower (especially for mechanical power). For a path conducting electrical current, such as a component in an electric circuit, P = VI, where P is the power dissipated along the path, V is the voltage across the path, and I is the current through the path. Compare energy, work. 3. Mathematics The number of times a number or expression is multiplied by itself, as shown by an exponent. Thus ten to the sixth power, or 10 6 , equals one million. 4. A number that represents the magnification of an optical instrument, such as a microscope or telescope. A 500-power microscope can magnify an image to 500 times its original size. The American Heritage® Science Dictionary Copyright © 2002. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved. Cite This Source Legal Dictionary Main Entry: pow·er Function: noun 1 : capability of acting or of producing an effect power > 2 a : authority or capacity to act that is delegated by law or constitution —often used in pl. commerce power often cap C&P : the power delegated to Congress under Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution to regulate commerce esp. among the states —see also COMMERCE CLAUSEconcurrent power : a power that is held simultaneously by more than one entity; specifically : a power delegated to the federal government by the U.S. Constitution that is also held by the states enu·mer·at·ed powers /i-'nü-m&-"rA-t&d-, -'nyü-/ : the powers specifically named and delegated to the federal government or prohibited to be exercised by the states under the U.S. Constitution —compare RESERVED POWERS in this entry executive power : the power delegated to the executive of a government; specifically : any or all of the powers delegated to the president under Article II of the U.S. Constitution implied power : a power that is reasonably necessary and appropriate to carry out the purposes of a power expressly granted; especially : a power that is not specifically delegated to the federal government by the U.S. Constitution but that is implied by the necessary and proper clause to be delegated for the purpose of carrying out the enumerated powers —see also McCulloch v. Maryland in the IMPORTANT CASES section judicial power : the power granted to the judicial branch of a government; specifically : the power delega